What is the book about the compilation of the Oxford English Dictionary?

The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary : Amazon.co.uk: Winchester, Simon: 9780062564610: Books.

When was the first fascicle of the Oxford English Dictionary is published 1884?

On February 1, 1884 , editors published the first volume of what would become the Oxford English Dictionary. The fascicle—one part of a larger book, this one 352 pages covering “a” through “ant”—sold only 4,000 copies. Since then, the OED has become one of the most respected and comprehensive dictionaries in the world.

Which word has 645 meanings?

Run : 645 definitions Though there is some debate surrounding the first place position of "run," as one of the top hom*ographs it has (an anticipated) 645 different definitions, according to a New York Times article from 2011.

How long did the Oxford English Dictionary take to complete?

It took 70 years to complete, but the Oxford English Dictionary was arguably history's first massively-crowdsourced collation of English knowledge. It's now the early 21st century.

Did JRR Tolkien write the Oxford dictionary?

Tolkienian, a. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), or New English Dictionary as it was called at its initiation, is the standard English dictionary. J.R.R. Tolkien spent several years as an assistant, and several of his own words and works would be cited in it.

What is the most used dictionary in the world?

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is widely regarded as the accepted authority on the English language. It is an unsurpassed guide to the meaning, history, and usage of 500,000 words and phrases past and present, from across the English-speaking world.

What is the last word in the OED?

Zyzzyva , a genus of South African weevils found on or near palm trees, is the newest last word you'll find in the Oxford English Dictionary.

What is the book about the making of the Oxford dictionary?

The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary — Burack's Bookshelf.

What is the book on the history of the Oxford dictionary?

The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary : Winchester, Simon: Amazon.com.au: Books.

Who compiled the Oxford English Dictionary?

Sir James Murray (born February 7, 1837, Denholm, Roxburghshire [now Scottish Borders], Scotland—died July 26, 1915, Oxford, Oxfordshire, England) was a Scottish lexicographer and the first editor (from 1879) of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles, now known as The Oxford English Dictionary.

What is the most comprehensive English dictionary?

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is widely accepted as the most complete record of the English language ever assembled. Unlike typical language dictionaries, which only define words in terms of their current uses and meanings, the OED is a historical dictionary.

The Oxford Guide To English Usage

The Oxford Guide to English Usage CONTENTS Table of Contents =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Title Page

TITLE

Edition Notice Notices

EDITION

NOTICES

Table of Contents Introduction

CONTENTS

FRONT_1

Grammatical Terms Used in This Book Abbreviations

FRONT_3

Word Formation 1.0 abbreviations 1.1 -ability and -ibility 1.2 -able and -ible 1.3 ae and oe 1.4 American spelling 1.5 ante- and anti- 1.6 -ant or ant 1.7 a or an 1.8 -ative or -ive 1.9 by- prefix 1.10 c and ck 1.11 capital or small initials 1.12 -cede or -ceed 1.13 -ce or -se 1.14 co- prefix 1.15 doubling of final consonant 1.16 dropping of silent -e 1.17 -efy or -ify 1.18 -ei or -ie- 1.19 en- or in- 1.20 -er and -est 1.21 -erous or -rous 1.22 final vowels before suffixes 1.23 for- and fore- 1.24 f to v 1.25 -ful suffix 1.26 hyphens 1.27 -ified or -yfied 1.28 in- or un- 1.29 i to y 1.30 -ize and -ise 1.31 l and ll 1.32 -ly 1.33 -ness 1.34 -or and -er 1.35 -oul- 1.36 -our or -or 1.37

FRONT_2

past of verbs, formation of 1.38 plural formation 1.39 possessive case 1.40 -re or -er 1.41 re- prefix 1.42 silent final consonants 1.43 -s suffix 1.44 -xion or -ction 1.45 -y, -ey, or -ie nouns 1.46 -y or -ey adjectives 1.47 y or i 1.48 -yse or -yze 1.49 y to i 1.50 Difficult and confusable spellings

1.51

Pronunciation 2.0 A. General points of pronunciation 2.1 a 2.2 -age 2.3 American pronunciation 2.4 -arily 2.5 -ed 2.6 -edly, -edness 2.7 -ein(e) 2.8 -eity 2.9 -eur 2.10 g 2.11 -gm 2.12 h 2.13 -ies 2.14 -ile 2.15 ng 2.16 o 2.17 ough 2.18 phth 2.19 pn-, ps-, pt- 2.20 r 2.21 reduced forms 2.22 s, sh, z and zh 2.23 stress 2.24 t 2.25 th 2.26 u 2.27 ul 2.28 urr 2.29 wh 2.30 B. Preferred pronunciations 2.31 Vocabulary

3.0

Grammar 4.0 adverbial relative clauses adverbs without -ly 4.2 article, omission of 4.3 as, case following 4.4 as if, as though 4.5 auxiliary verbs 4.6 but, case following 4.7

4.1

can and may 4.8 collective nouns 4.9 comparison of adjectives and adverbs 4.10 comparisons 4.11 compound subject 4.12 co-ordination 4.13 correlative conjunctions 4.14 dare 4.15 double passive 4.16 either...or: 4.17 either (pronoun) 4.18 gender of indefinite expressions 4.19 group possessive 4.20 have 4.21 he who, she who 4.22 -ics, nouns in 4.23 infinitive, present or perfect 4.24 -ing (gerund and participle) 4.25 I or me, we or us, etc. 4.26 I should or I would 4.27 I who, you who, etc. 4.28 like 4.29 -lily adverbs 4.30 may or might 4.31 measurement, nouns of 4.32 need 4.33 neither...nor 4.34 neither (pronoun) 4.35 none (pronoun) 4.36 ought 4.37 participles 4.38 preposition at end 4.39 quantity, nouns of 4.40 reflexive pronouns 4.41 relative clauses 4.42 shall and will 4.43 should and would 4.44 singular or plural 4.45 split infinitive 4.46 -s plural or singular 4.47 subjects joined by (either...) or 4.48 subjunctive 4.49 than, case following 4.50 that (conjunction), omission of 4.51 that (relative pronoun), omission of 4.52 there is or there are 4.53 to 4.54 unattached phrases 4.55 used to 4.56 way, relative clause following 4.57 were or was 4.58 we (with phrase following) 4.59 what (relative pronoun) 4.60 which or that (relative pronouns) 4.61 who and whom (interrogative and relative pronouns) who or which (relative pronouns) 4.63 whose or of which in relative clauses 4.64 who/whom or that (relative pronouns) 4.65

4.62

you and I or you and me

4.66

Appendix A. Principles of Punctuation apostrophe A.1 brackets A.2 colon A.3 comma A.4 dash A.5 exclamation mark A.6 full stop A.7 hyphen: A.8 parentheses A.9 period: A.10 question mark A.11 quotation marks A.12 semicolon A.13 square brackets A.14

A.0

Appendix B. Clich‚s and Modish and Inflated Diction

B.0

Appendix C. English Overseas C.0 1. The United States C.1 2. Canada C.2 3. Australia and New Zealand C.3 4. South Africa C.4 FRONT_1 Introduction =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=It is one thing to use language; it is quite another to understand how it works. (Anthony Burgess, Joysprick) English usage is a subject as wide as the English language itself. By far the greater part of usage, however, raises no controversies and poses no problems for native speakers of English, just because it is their natural idiom. But there are certain limited areas --particular sounds, spellings, words, and constructions--about which there arises uncertainty, difficulty, or disagreement. The proper aim of a usage guide is to resolve these problems, rather than describe the whole of current usage. The Oxford Guide to English Usage has this aim. Within the limits just indicated, it offers guidance in as clear, concise, and systematic a manner as possible. In effecting its aims it makes use of five special features, explained below. 1. Layout. In the Guide the subject of usage is divided into four fields: word formation, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Each field is covered by a separate section of the book, and each of the four sections has its own alphabetical arrangement of entries. Each entry is headed by its title in bold type. All the words that share a particular kind of spelling, sound, or construction can therefore be treated together. This makes for both economy and comprehensiveness of treatment. Note that Pronunciation is in two parts: A deals with the pronunciation of particular letters, or groups of letters, while B is an alphabetical list of words whose pronunciation gives trouble.

2. Explanation. The explanations given in each entry are intended to be simple and straightforward. Where the subject is inevitably slightly complicated, they begin by setting out familiar facts as a basis from which to untangle the complexities. The explanations take into account the approaches developed by modern linguistic analysis, but employ the traditional terms of grammar as much as possible. (A glossary of all grammatical terms used will be found in FRONT_2. Technical symbols and abbreviations, and the phonetic alphabet, are not used at all. 3. Exemplification. Throughout Vocabulary and Grammar and where appropriate elsewhere, example sentences are given to illustrate the point being discussed. The majority of these are real, rather than invented, examples. Many of them have been drawn from the works of some of the best twentieth-century writers (many equally good writers happen not to have been quoted). Even informal or substandard usage has been illustrated in this way; such examples frequently come from speeches put into the mouths of characters in novels, and hence no censure of the style of the author is implied. The aim is to illustrate the varieties of usage and to display the best, thereby making it more memorable than a mere collection of lapses and solecisms would be able to do. 4. Recommendation. Recommendations are clearly set out. The blob ° is used in the most clear-cut cases where a warning, restriction, or prohibition is stated. The square Ü is occasionally employed where no restriction needs to be enforced. The emphasis of the recommendations is on the degree of acceptability in standard English of a particular use, rather than on a dogmatic distinction of right and wrong. Much that is sometimes condemned as 'bad English' is better regarded as appropriate in informal contexts but inappropriate in formal ones. The appropriateness of usage to context is indicated by the fairly rough categories 'formal' and 'informal', 'standard', 'regional', and 'non-standard', 'jocular', and so on. Some of the ways in which American usage differs from British are pointed out. 5. Reference. Ease of access to the entry sought by the user is a priority of the Guide. The division into four sections, explained above, means that (roughly speaking) only a quarter of the total range of pages need be looked through in order to find a particular entry. Within each section there are many cross-references to other entries; hypertext links are provided for these entries. In addition to the four main sections described at 1 above, the Guide has three appendices: A is an outline of the principles of punctuation; B lists some of the cliches and overworked diction most widely disliked at present; and C gives a brief description of the characteristics of the five major overseas varieties of English. Concise as it is, the Guide may be found by individual users to cover some ground that is already familiar and some that they consider it unnecessary to know about. It is impossible for an entry (especially in the field of grammar) not to include more facts than are strictly part of the question which the entry is designed to answer. Language is a closely woven, seamless fabric, not a set of building blocks or pigeon-holes, capable of independent treatment; hence there are bound to be some redundancies and some overlap between different entries. Moreover, every user has a different degree of knowledge and interest. It is the compiler's hope, however, that all will be instructed and enriched by any incidental gains

in understanding of the language that the use of this Guide may afford. FRONT_2 Grammatical Terms Used in This Book =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=absolute used independently of its customary grammatical relationship or construction, e.g. Weather permitting, I will come. acronym a word formed from the initial letters of other words, e.g. NATO. active

applied to a verb whose subject is also the source of the action of the verb, e.g. We saw him; opposite of passive.

adjective a word that names an attribute, used to describe a noun or pronoun, e.g. small child, it is small. adverb a word that modifies an adjective, verb, or another adverb, expressing a relation of place, time, circ*mstance, manner, cause, degree, etc., e.g. gently, accordingly, now, here, why. agent noun a noun denoting the doer of an action e.g. builder. agent suffix a suffix added to a verb to form an agent noun, e.g. -er. agree

to have the same grammatical number, gender, case, or person as another word.

analogy the formation of a word, derivative, or construction in imitation of an existing word or pattern. animate denoting a living being. antecedent a noun or phrase to which a relative pronoun refers back. antepenultimate last but two. antonym a word of contrary meaning to another. apposition the placing of a word, especially a noun, syntactically parallel to another, e.g. William the Conqueror. article a/an (indefinite article) or the (definite article). attributive designating a noun, adjective, or phrase expressing an attribute, characteristically preceding the word it qualifies, e.g. old in the old dog; opposite of predicative. auxiliary verb a verb used in forming tenses, moods, and voices of other verbs. case

the form (subjective, objective, or possessive) of a noun or

pronoun, expressing relation to some other word. clause a distinct part of a sentence including a subject (sometimes by implication) and predicate. collective noun a singular noun denoting many individuals; see "collective nouns" in topic 4.9 collocation an expression consisting of two (or more) words frequently juxtaposed, especially adjective + noun. comparative the form of an adjective or adverb expressing a higher degree of a quality, e.g. braver, worse. comparison the differentiation of the comparative and superlative degrees from the positive (basic) form of an adjective or adverb. complement a word or words necessary to complete a grammatical construction: the complement of a clause, e.g. John is (a) thoughtful (man), Solitude makes John thoughtful; of an adjective, e.g. John is glad of your help; of a preposition, e.g. I thought of John. compound preposition a preposition made up of more than one word, e.g. with regard to. concord agreement between words in gender, number, or person, e.g. the girl who is here, you who are alive, Those men work. conditional designating (1) a clause which expresses a condition, or (2) a mood of the verb used in the consequential clause of a conditional sentence, e.g. (1) If he had come, (2) I should have seen him. consonant (1) a speech sound in which breath is at least partly obstructed, combining with a vowel to form a syllable; (2) a letter usually used to represent (1); e.g. ewe is written with vowel + consonant + vowel, but is pronounced as consonant (y) + vowel (oo). co-ordination the linking of two or more parts of a compound sentence that are equal in importance, e.g. Adam delved and Eve span. correlative co-ordination co-ordination by means of pairs of corresponding words regularly used together, e.g. either..or. countable designating a noun that refers in the singular to one and in the plural to more than one, and can be qualified by a, one, every, etc. and many, two, three, etc.; opposite of mass (noun).

diminutive denoting a word describing a small, liked, or despised specimen of the thing denoted by the corresponding root word, e.g. ringlet, Johnny, princeling. diphthong see digraph. direct object the object that expresses the primary object of the action of the verb, e.g. He sent a present to his son. disyllabic having two syllables. double passive see "double passive" in topic 4.16. elide

to omit by elision.

elision the omission of a vowel or syllable in pronouncing, e.g. let's. ellipsis the omission from a sentence of words needed to complete a construction or sense. elliptical involving ellipsis. feminine the gender proper to female beings. finite

designating (part of) a verb limited by person and number, e.g. I am, He comes.

formal designating the type of English used publicly for some serious purpose, either in writing or in public speeches. future

the tense of a verb referring to an event yet to happen: simple future, e.g. I shall go; future in the past, referring to an event that was yet to happen at a time prior to the time of speaking, e.g. He said he would go.

gerund the part of the verb which can be used like a noun, ending in -ing, e.g. What is the use of my scolding him? govern (said of a verb or preposition) to have (a noun or pronoun, or a case) dependent on it. group possessive see "double passive" in topic 4.16. hard

designating a letter, chiefly c or g, that indicates a guttural sound, as in cot or got.

if-clause a clause introduced by if. imperative the mood of a verb expressing command, e.g. Come here!

inanimate opposite of animate. indirect object the person or thing affected by the action of the verb but not primarily acted upon, e.g. I gave him the book. infinitive the basic form of a verb that does not indicate a particular tense or number or person; the to-infinitive, used with preceding to, e.g. I want to know; the bare infinitive, without preceding to, e.g. Help me pack. inflexion a part of a word, usually a suffix, that expresses grammatical relationship, such as number, person, tense, etc. informal designating the type of English used in private conversation, personal letters, and popular public communication. intransitive designating a verb that does not take a direct object, e.g. I must think. intrusive r see item 2 in topic 2.21 linking r see "r" in topic 2.21. loan-word a word adopted by one language from another. main clause the principal clause of a sentence. masculine the gender proper to male beings. mass noun a noun that refers to something regarded as grammatically indivisible, treated only as singular, and never qualified by those, many, two, three, etc.; opposite of countable noun. modal

relating to the mood of a verb; used to express mood.

mood

form of a verb serving to indicate whether it is to express fact, command, permission, wish, etc.

monosyllabic having one syllable. nominal designating a phrase or clause that is used like a noun, e.g. What you need is a drink. nonce-word a word coined for one occasion. non-finite designating (a part of) a verb not limited by person and number, e.g. the infinitive, gerund, or participle. non-restrictive see relative clauses.

noun

a word used to denote a person, place, or thing.

noun phrase a phrase functioning within the sentence as a noun, e.g. The one over there is mine. object

a noun or its equivalent governed by an active transitive verb, e.g. I will take that one.

objective the case of a pronoun typically used when the pronoun is the object of a verb or governed by a preposition, e.g. me, him. paradigm the complete pattern of inflexion of a noun, verb, etc. participle the part of a verb used like an adjective but retaining some verbal qualities (tense and government of an object) and also used to form compound verb forms: the present participle ends in -ing, the past participle of regular verbs in -ed, e.g. While doing her work she had kept the baby amused. passive designating a form of the verb by which the verbal action is attributed to the person or thing to whom it is actually directed (i.e. the logical object is the grammatical subject), e.g. He was seen by us; opposite of active. past

a tense expressing past action or state, e.g. I arrived yesterday.

past perfect a tense expressing action already completed prior to the time of speaking, e.g. I had arrived by then. pejorative disparaging, depreciatory. penultimate last but one. perfect a tense denoting completed action or action viewed in relation to the present; e.g. I have finished now; perfect infinitive, e.g. He seems to have finished now. periphrasis a roundabout way of expressing something. person one of the three classes of personal pronouns or verb-forms, denoting the person speaking (first person), the person spoken to (second person), and the person or thing spoken about (third person). phrasal verb an expression consisting of a verb and an adverb (and preposition), e.g. break down, look forward to. phrase a group of words without a predicate, functioning like an adjective, adverb, or noun.

plural

denoting more than one.

polysyllabic having more than one syllable. possessive the case of a noun or a pronoun indicating possession, e.g. John's; possessive pronoun, e.g. my, his. predicate the part of a clause consisting of what is said of the subject, including verb + complement or object. predicative designating (especially) an adjective that forms part or the whole of the predicate, e.g. The dog is old. prefix

a verbal element placed at the beginning of a word to qualify its meaning, e.g. ex-, non-.

preposition a word governing a noun or pronoun, expressing the relation of the latter to other words, e.g. seated at the table. prepositional phrase a phrase consisting of a preposition and its complement, e.g. I am surprised at your reaction. present a tense expressing action now going on or habitually performed in past and future, e.g. He commutes daily. pronoun a word used instead of a noun to designate (without naming) a person or thing already known or indefinite, e.g. I, you, he, etc., anyone, something, etc. proper name a name used to designate an individual person, animal, town, ship, etc. qualify (of an adjective or adverb) to attribute some quality to (a noun or adjective/verb). reflexive implying the subject's action on himself or itself; reflexive pronoun e.g. myself, yourself, etc. relative see "relative clauses" in topic 4.42. restrictive see relative clauses semivowel a sound intermediate between vowel and consonant, e.g. the sound of y and w. sentence adverb an adverb that qualifies or comments on the whole sentence, not one of the elements in it, e.g. Unfortunately, he missed his train.

simple future see future singular denoting a single person or thing. soft

designating a letter, chiefly c or g, that indicates a sibilant sound, as in city or germ.

split infinitive see "split infinitive" in topic 4.46. stem

the essential part of a word to which inflexions and other suffixes are added, e.g. unlimited.

stress the especially heavy vocal emphasis falling on one (the stressed) syllable of a word more than on the others. subject the element in a clause (usually a noun or its equivalent) about which something is predicated (the latter is the predicate). subjective the case of a pronoun typically used when the pronoun is the subject of a clause. subjunctive the mood of a verb denoting what is imagined, wished, or possible, e.g. I insist that it be finished. subordinate clause a clause dependent on the main clause and functioning like a noun, adjective, or adverb within the sentence, e.g. He said that you had gone. substitute verb the verb do used in place of another verb, e.g. 'He likes chocolate.' 'Does he?' suffix

a verbal element added at the end of a word to form a derivative, e.g. -ation, -ing, -itis, -ize.

superlative the form of an adjective or adverb expressing the highest or a very high degree of a quality, e.g. bravest, worst. synonym a word identical in sense and use with another. transitive designating a verb that takes a direct object, e.g. I said nothing. unreal condition (especially in a conditional sentence) a condition which will not be or has not been fulfilled. unstressed designating a word, syllable, or vowel not having stress. variant a form of a word etc. that differs in spelling or pronunciation

from another (often the main or usual) form. verb vowel

a part of speech that predicates. (1) an open speech sound made without audible friction and capable of forming a syllable with or without a consonant; (2) a letter usually used to represent (1), e.g. a, e, i, o, u.

wh-question word a convenient term for the interrogative and relative words, most beginning with wh: what, when, where, whether, which, who, whom, whose, how. FRONT_3 Abbreviations =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=Amer.

American

COD

The Concise Oxford Dictionary (edn. 7, Oxford, 1982)

Hart's Rules. Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers (edn. 39, Oxford, 1983) MEU

H. W. Fowler, A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (edn. 2, revised by Sir Ernest Gowers, Oxford, 1965)

NEB

The New English Bible (Oxford and Cambridge, 1970)

ODWE OED

TLS

The Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors (Oxford, 1981)

The Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, 1933) and its supplementary volumes, A-G (1972); H-N (1976); O-Scz (1982). The Times Literary Supplement

1.0 Word Formation =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=This section is concerned with the ways in which the forms of English words and word elements change or vary. It deals primarily with their written form, but in many cases the choice between two or more possible written forms is also a choice between the corresponding spoken forms. What follows is therefore more than merely a guide to spelling, although it is that too. A great part is taken up with guidance on the way in which words change when they are inflected (e.g. the possessive case and plural of nouns, the past tense and past participle of verbs) or when derivational prefixes and suffixes are added (e.g. the adjectival -able and -ible suffixes, the adverbial -ly suffix). Because this is intended as a very basic outline, little space has been given to the description of the meanings and uses of the inflected and compounded forms of words. Instead, the emphasis is on the identification of the correct, or most widely acceptable, written form. Particular attention is given to the dropping, doubling, and alteration of letters when derivatives are formed. Space has also been given to problems of spelling that are not caused by derivation, especially the different ways of spelling the same sound in different words (e.g. y or i in cider, cipher, gypsy, pygmy, etc.). A comprehensive coverage of all words requiring hyphens or capitals would require more space than is available here. The entries for these two

subjects attempt only to offer guidelines in certain difficult but identifiable cases. For a fuller treatment the reader is referred to the Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors and Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers. Wherever possible, notes are added to indicate where the conventions of American spelling differ from those recommended here. In cases where there is widespread variation in the spelling of a particular word or form, the spelling recommended here is that preferred

1.1 abbreviations =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

It is usual to indicate an abbreviation by placing a point (full stop) after it, e.g. H. G. Wells, five miles S. (= south), B.Litt., Kt., Sun. (= Sunday), Jan. (= January), p. 7 (= page 7), ft., in., lb., cm. However, no point is necessary: 1. With a sequence of capitals alone, e.g. BBC, MA, QC, NNE, BC, AD, PLC (and not, of course, with acronyms, e.g. Aslef, Naafi). 2. With the numerical abbreviations 1st, 2nd, etc. 3. C, F (of temperature), chemical symbols, and measures of length, weight, time, etc. in scientific and technical use. 4. Dr, Revd, Mr, Mrs, Ms, Mme, Mlle, St, Hants, Northants, p (= penny or pence). 5. In words that are colloquial abbreviations, e.g. co-op, demo, recap, trad, vac. 1.2 -ability and -ibility =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Nouns ending in these suffixes undergo the same changes in the stem as adjectives in -able and -ible (see next entry). 1.3 -able and -ible =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Words ending in -able generally owe their form to the Latin termination -abilis or the Old French -able (or both), and words in -ible to the Latin -ibilis. The suffix -able is also added to words of 'distinctly French or English origin' (OED, s.v. -ble), and as a living element to English roots. A. Words ending in -able. The following alterations are made to the stem: 1. Silent final -e is dropped (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17). Exceptions: words whose stem ends in -ce, -ee, -ge, -le, and the

following: blameable rateable dyeable ropeable giveable (but forgivable) saleable hireable shareable holeable sizeable likeable tameable liveable tuneable nameable unshakeable

° Amer. spelling tends to omit -e- in the words above. 2. Final -y becomes -i- (see "y to i" in topic 1.50). Exception: flyable. 3. A final consonant may be doubled (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16). Exceptions: inferable referable preferable transferable (but conferrable)

4. Most verbs of more than two syllables ending in -ate drop this ending when forming adjectives in -able, e.g. alienable, calculable, demonstrable, etc. Verbs of two syllables ending in -ate form adjectives in -able regularly, e.g. creatable, debatable, dictatable, etc. For a list of -able words, see Hart's Rules, pp. 83-4. B. Words ending in -ible. These are fewer, since -ible is not a living suffix. Below is a list of the commonest. Almost all form their negative in in-, il-, etc., so that the negative form can be inferred from the positive in the list below; the exceptions are indicated by (un). accessible edible perfectible adducible eligible permissible admissible exhaustible persuasible audible expressible plausible avertible extensible possible collapsible fallible reducible combustible (un)feasible repressible compatible flexible reproducible comprehensible forcible resistible contemptible fusible responsible corrigible gullible reversible corruptible indelible risible credible (un)intelligible sensible defensible irascible (un)susceptible destructible legible tangible digestible negligible vendible dirigible ostensible vincible discernible perceptible visible

divisible 1.4 ae and oe =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

In words derived from Latin and Greek, these are now always written as separate letters, not as ligatures ‘, oe, e.g. aeon, Caesar, gynaecology; diarrhoea, hom*oeopathy, Oedipus. The simple e is preferable in several words once commonly spelt with ae, oe, especially medieval ( formerly with ae) and ecology, ecumenical (formerly with initial oe). ° In Amer. spelling, e replaces ae, oe in many words, e.g. gynecology, diarrhea. 1.5 American spelling =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Differences between Amer. and British spelling are mentioned at the following places: "-able and -ible" in topic 1.3; "ae and oe" in topic 1.4; "-ce or -se" in topic 1.14; "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16; "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17; "hyphens" in topic 1.27; "l and ll" in topic 1.32; "-oul-" in topic 1.36; "-our or -or" in topic 1.37; "past of verbs, formation of" in topic 1.38; "-re or -er" in topic 1.41; "-xion or -ction" in topic 1.45; "-yse or -yze" in topic 1.49. See also "Difficult and confusable spellings" in topic 1.51 passim. 1.6 ante- and anti=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

ante- (from Latin) = 'before'; anti- (from Greek) = 'against, opposite to'. Note especially antechamber and antitype. 1.7 -ant or ant =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

-ant is the noun ending, -ent the adjective ending in the following: dependant descendant pendant propellant

dependent descendent pendent propellent

independent is both adjective and noun; dependence, independence are the abstract nouns. The following are correct spellings: ascendant, -nce, -ncy relevant, -nce attendant, -nce repellent expellent superintendent, -ncy impellent tendency intendant, -ncy transcendent, -ncy 1.8 a or an =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

A. Before h. 1. Where h is aspirated, use a, e.g. a harvest, hero, hope. 2. Where h is silent, use an, e.g. an heir, honour, honorarium. 3. In words in which the first syllable is unstressed, use a, e.g. a historic occasion, a hotel. ° The older usage was not to pronounce h and to write an, but this is now almost obsolete. B. Before capital letter abbreviations. Be guided by the pronunciation. 1. Where the abbreviation is pronounced as one or more letter name e.g. a B road a PS

a UN resolution a VIP

but an A road an H-bomb

an MP an SOS

2. Where the abbreviation is pronounced as a word (an acronym), e.g. a RADA student

a SABENA airline typist

but an ACAS official

an OPEC minister

But where the abbreviation would in speech be expanded to the full word, use a or an as appropriate to the latter, e.g. a MS 'a manuscript'. 1.9 -ative or -ive =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Correct are: (a)

authoritative interpretative

qualitative quantitative

(b)

assertive exploitive

preventive

1.10 by- prefix =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

'Tending to form one word with the following noun, but a hyphen is still frequently found' (ODWE). One word: bygone, byline, byname, bypass, bypath, bystander, byway, byword; the others (e.g. by-election, by-road) are hyphened. ° Bye (noun) in sport, bye-bye (= good-bye) are the chief words with final -e. 1.11 c and ck =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Words ending in -c interpose k before suffixes which otherwise would indicate a soft c, chiefly -ed, -er, -ing, -y, e.g.: bivouacker, -ing colicky frolicked, -ing mimicked, ing

panicky picnicked, -er, -ing plasticky trafficked, -ing

Exceptions: arced, -ing, zinced, zincify, zincing. Before -ism, -ist, -ity, and -ize c (chiefly occurring in the suffix -ic) remains and is pronounced soft, e.g. Anglicism, physicist, domesticity, italicize. 1.12 capital or small initials =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

There are four classes of word that especially give trouble. A. Compass points. Use capitals: 1. When abbreviated, e.g. NNE for north-north-east. 2. When denoting a region, e.g. unemployment in the North. 3. When part of a geographical name with recognized status, e.g. Northern Ireland, East Africa, Western Australia. 4. In Bridge. Otherwise use small initials, e.g. facing (the) south, the wind was south, southbound, a southeaster. B. Parties, denominations, and organizations.

'The general rule is: capitalization makes a word more specific and limited in its reference: contrast a Christian scientist (man of science) and a Christian Scientist (member of the Church of Christ Scientist).' (Hart's Rules, pp. 10-11.) So, for example, Conservative, Socialist, Democratic (names of parties); Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Congregational; but conservative, socialist, democratic (as normal adjectives), catholic sympathies, orthodox views, congregational singing. C. Words derived from proper names. When connection with the proper name is indirect (the meaning associated with or suggested by the proper name), use a small initial letter, e.g. (nouns) boycott, jersey, mackintosh, quisling; (adjectives) herculean (labours), platonic (love), quixotic (temperament); (verbs) blarney, bowdlerize, pasteurize. When the connection of a derived adjective or verb with a proper name is immediate and alive, use a capital, e.g. Christian, Platonic (philosophy), Rembrandtesque, Roman; Anglicize, Christianize, Russify. ° Adjectives of nationality usually retain the capital even when used in transferred senses, e.g. Dutch courage, go Dutch, Russian salad, Turkish delight. The chief exceptions are arabic (numeral), roman (numeral, type). D. Proprietary names. The name of a product or process, if registered as a trade mark, is a proprietary name, and should be given a capital initial, e.g. Araldite, Coca-Cola, Marmite, Olivetti, Pyrex, Quaker Oats, Vaseline, Xerox. 1.13 -cede or -ceed =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Exceed, proceed, succeed; the other verbs similarly formed have -cede, e.g. concede, intercede, recede. Note also supersede. 1.14 -ce or -se =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Advice, device, licence, and practice are nouns; the related verbs are spelt with -se: advise, devise, license, practise. Similarly prophecy (noun), prophesy (verb). ° Amer. spelling favours licence, practice for both noun and verb; but the nouns defence, offence, pretence are spelt with c in Britain, s in America.

1.15 co- prefix =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Most words with this prefix have no hyphen (even if a vowel, other than o, follows the prefix). Those that have a hyphen are: 1. Words with o following, e.g. co-operate (and derivatives; but uncooperative), co-opt, co-ordinate (often coordinate in Mathematics; also uncoordinated). 2. Words in which the hyphen preserves correct syllabication, so aiding recognition, e.g. co-latitude, co-religionist, co-respondent (distinguished from correspondent). 3. Words, especially recent or nonce coinages, in which co- is a living prefix meaning 'fellow-', e.g. co-author, co-pilot, co-wife. 1.16 doubling of final consonant =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. When certain suffixes beginning with a vowel are added to nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs, the final consonant of the stem word is doubled before the suffix: a. if the preceding vowel is written with a single letter (or single letter preceded by qu) and b. if that vowel bears the main stress (hence all monosyllables are included). So bed, bedding but head, heading; occ£r, occ£rred but ¢ffer, ¢ffered; bef¡t, bef¡tted but b‚nefit, b‚nefited. Suffixes which cause this doubling include: a. The verb inflexions -ed, -ing, e.g. begged, begging equipped, equipping

revved, revving trek, trekking

b. The adjective and adverb suffixes -er, -est, e.g. sadder, saddest. c. Various derivational suffixes, especially -able, -age, -en, -er, -ery, -ish, -y, e.g. clubbable tonnage sadden trapper

waggery priggish shrubby

Exception: bus makes bused, busing. 2. Words of more than one syllable, not stressed on the last syllable, do not double the final consonant, unless it is l, when a suffix

beginning with a vowel is added, e.g. biased blossoming combated focusing

gossipy lettered pilotage

wainscoted wickedest womanish

Exception: worship makes worshipped, -ing. Note that some other words in which the final syllable has a full vowel (not obscure e or i), some of which are compounds, also double the final consonant, e.g. handicap hobnob horsewhip humbug

kidnap leapfrog nonplus

periwig sandbag zigzag

° Amer. sometimes kidnaped, kidnaping, worshiped, worshiping. 3. Consonants that are never doubled are h, w, x, y. 4. When endings beginning with a vowel are added, l is always doubled after a single vowel wherever the stress falls, e.g. controllable flannelled

jeweller panelling

Note also woollen, woolly. Exceptions: parallel makes paralleled, -ing; devil makes devilish; some (rare) superlatives such as brutalest, loyalest, civil(l)est. ° In Amer. spelling l obeys the same rules as the other consonants (except h, w, x, y ), e.g. traveler, marvelous, but compelling, pally. Note also Amer. woolen (but woolly). 5. A silent final consonant is not doubled. Endings are added as if the consonant were pronounced, e.g. crocheted, -ing rendezvouses (third person singular) pr‚cised rendezvousing 1.17 dropping of silent -e =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

A. When a suffix beginning with a vowel (including -y ) is added to a word ending in silent -e ( including e following another vowel), the -e is dropped. So: 1. Before suffixes beginning with e- (i.e. -ed, -er, -ery, -est), e.g.

braver, bravery, bravest hoed dyed, dyer issued eeriest manoeuvred freer, freest queued

2. Before -able, e.g. adorable analysable

bribable imaginable

manoeuvrable usable

Exceptions: a. Words ending in -ce and -ge retain the e to indicate the softness of the consonant, e.g. bridgeable, peaceable. b. In a number of -able adjectives, e is retained in order to make the root word more easily recognizable. See list on "-able and -ible" in topic 1.3 c. ee is retained, e.g. agreeable, feeable, foreseeable. d. The few adjectives formed on verbs ending in consonant + -le; e.g. handleable. 3. Before -age, e.g. cleavage, dotage, linage (number of lines). Exceptions: acreage, mileage. 4. Before -ing, e.g. centring, fatiguing, housing, manoeuvreing. With change of i to y: dying, lying, etc. (See "i to y" in topic 1.30). Exceptions: a. ee, oe, and ye remain, e.g. agreeing canoeing dyeing

eyeing fleeing hoeing

shoeing tiptoeing

b. blueing, cueing (gluing, issuing, queuing, etc. are regular). c. ageing (raging, staging, etc. are regular). d. routeing, singeing, swingeing, tingeing are distinguished from routing 'putting to flight', singing, swinging, and tinging 'tinkling'. 5. Before -ish, e.g. bluish latish

nicish purplish

roguish whitish

Exception: moreish. 6. Before -y, e.g. bony caky

chancy cliquy

mousy stagy

Exceptions: See "-y or -ey adjectives" in topic 1.47 B. When a suffix beginning with a consonant (e.g. -ful, -ling, -ly, -ment, -ness, -some) is added to a word ending in silent -e, the -e is retained, e.g. abridgement definitely judgement (judgment acknowledgement fledgeling often in legal works) amazement houseful useful awesome whiteness

Exceptions: argument, awful, duly, eerily, eeriness, truly, wholly. ° In Amer. spelling e is dropped after dg and before a suffix beginning with a consonant, e.g. fledgling, judgment. C. Final silent -e is omitted in Amer. spelling in several words in which it is found in British spelling, and so often is final silent -ue in the endings -gogue, -logue, e.g. ax analog

adz epilog

program pedagog

1.18 -efy or -ify =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The chief words with -efy (-efied, -efication, etc.) are: liquefy obstupefy putrefy

rarefy rubefy stupefy

torrefy tumefy

All the others have -ify etc. See also "-ified or -yfied" in topic 1.28 1.19 -ei or -ie=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The rule 'i before e except after c' holds good for nearly all words in which the vowel-sound is ee, as Aries, hygienic, yield. Exceptions where ie follows c are: prima facie, specie, species, superficies. Note also friend, adieu, review, view. The following words which are, or can be, pronounced with the ee- sound have ei: caffeine casein ceiling codeine conceit

either forfeit heinous inveigle Madeira

protein receipt receive seise seize

conceive counterfeit deceit deceive

neither perceive peripeteia plebeian

seizure surfeit weir weird

1.20 en- or in=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The following pairs of words can give trouble: encrust (verb) incrustation engrain (verb) to dye in ingrain (adjective) dyed in the raw state the yarn ingrained deeply rooted enquire ask inquire undertake a formal investigation enquiry question inquiry official investigation ensure make sure insure take out insurance (against risk: note assurance of life) 1.21 -er and -est =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

These suffixes of comparison may require the following changes in spelling: 1. Doubling of final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16). 2. Dropping of silent -e (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17). 3. Y to i (see "y to i" in topic 1.50). 1.22 -erous or -rous =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The ending -erous is normal in adjectives related to nouns ending in -er, e.g. murderous, slanderous, thunderous. The exceptions are: ambidextrous cumbrous dextrous

disastrous leprous meandrous

monstrous slumbrous wondrous

1.23 final vowels before suffixes =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

A. For treatment of final -e and -y before suffixes, see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17, and "y to i" in topic 1.50. B. For treatment of final -o before -s (suffix), see "plural formation" in topic 1.39, and "-s suffix" in topic 1.44. C. In nearly all other cases, the final vowels -a, -i, -o, and -u are unaffected by the addition of suffixes and do not themselves affect the suffixes. So:

bikinied (girls) mascaraed echoed mustachioed hennaed radioed echo*r skier areas emus cameras gnus corgis (he) rumbas echoing scubaing radioing skiing

(they) rumbaed taxied vetoer (he) skis taxis taxiing vetoing

Exceptions: idea'd (having ideas); past ski'd from ski (contrast skied from sky). D. Final -‚ in words taken from French is retained before all suffixes; the e of -ed is dropped after it, e.g. appliqu‚d appliqu‚ing attach‚s caf‚s

canap‚s chass‚ing clich‚d

communiqu‚s emigr‚s souffl‚s

1.24 for- and fore=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The prefix for- means 'away, out, completely, or implies prohibition or abstention' (MEU). Fore- is the same as the ordinary word so spelt, = 'beforehand, in front'. Note especially: forbear refrain forebear ancestor forgather foreclose forgo abstain from forego (esp. in foregoing (list), foregone (conclusion) forfeit 1.25 f to v =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Certain nouns that end in f or f followed by silent e change this f to v in some derivatives. Most are familiar, but with a few derivatives there is variation between f and v or uncertainty about which consonant is correct; only these are dealt with below. beef: plural beeves oxen, beefs kinds of beef. calf (young bovine animal): calfish calflike; calves-foot jelly. calf (of leg): (enormously)calved having (enormous) calves. corf (basket): plural corves. dwarf: plural dwarfs. ° Dwarves only in J. R. R. Tolkien's writings. elf: elfish and elvish are both acceptable; elfin but elven. handkerchief: plural handkerchiefs. hoof: plural usually hoofs, but hooves is commonly found, e.g. The useless tool for horses' hooves (Graham Greene);

Listening for Sebastian's retreating hooves (Evelyn Waugh); adjective hoofed or hooved. knife: verb knife. leaf: leaved having leaves (broad- leaved etc.) but leafed as past of leaf (through a book, etc.). life: lifelong lasting a lifetime; livelong (day, etc., poetic: the i is short); the plural of still life is still lifes. oaf: plural oafs. roof: plural roofs. ° Rooves is commonly heard and sometimes written, e.g. Several acres of bright red rooves(George Orwell). Its written use should be avoided. scarf (garment): plural scarves; scarfed wearing a scarf. scarf (joint): plural and verb keep f. sheaf: plural sheaves; verb sheaf or sheave; sheaved made into a sheaf. shelf: plural shelves; shelvy having sandbanks. staff: plural staffs but archaic and musical staves. turf: plural turfs or turves; verb turf; turfy. wharf: plural wharfs or wharves. wolf: wolfish of a wolf. 1.26 -ful suffix =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The adjectival suffix -ful may require the following changes in spelling: 1. Change of y to i (see "y to i" in topic 1.50). 2. Simplification of -ll (see "l and ll" in topic 1.32). 1.27 hyphens =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

A. Hyphens are used to connect words that are more closely linked to each other than to the surrounding syntax. Unfortunately their use is not consistent. Some pairs or groups of words are written as a single word (e.g. motorway, railwayman), others, despite their equally close bond, as separate words (e.g. motor cycle, pay phone); very similar pairs may be found with a hyphen (e.g. motor-cyclist, pay-bed). There are no hard and fast rules that will predict in every case whether a group of words should be written as one, with a hyphen, or separately. Useful lists can be found in Hart's Rules, pp. 76-81; numerous individual items are entered in ODWE. 1. Groups consisting of attributive noun + noun are probably the most unpredictable. It is the nature of English syntax to produce limitless numbers of groups of this kind. Such a group generally remains written as separate words until it is recognized as a lexical item with a special meaning, when it may receive a hyphen. Eventually it may be written as one word, but this usually happens when the two nouns are monosyllabic and there is no clash between the final letter of the first and the first letter of the second.

This generalization is, however, a very weak guide to what happens in practice. Compare, for example, coal tar, coal-face, coalfield; oil well, oil-painting, oilfield; blood cell, blood-pressure, bloodstream. 2. Nouns derived from phrasal verbs, consisting of verb + adverb, are slightly more predictable. They are never written as two words, frequently hyphened, and sometimes written as one, e.g. fall-out, play-off, set-back, turn-out; feedback, layout, runoff, turnover. Phrases consisting of agent-noun in -er + adverb are usually hyphened, e.g. picker-up, runner-up; those consisting of gerund in -ing + adverb are usually left as two words, e.g. Your coming back so soon surprised me, unless they have become a unit with a special meaning, e.g. Gave him a going-over. 3. Various collocations which are not hyphened when they play their normal part in the sentence are given hyphens when they are transferred to attributive position before a noun, e.g. a. adjective + noun: a common-sense argument (but This is common sense), an open-air restaurant (but eating in the open air). b. preposition + noun: an out-of-date aircraft (but This is out of date), an in-depth interview (but interviewing him in depth). c. participle + adverb: The longed-for departure and Tugged-at leaves and whirling branches (Iris Murdoch) (but the departure greatly longed for; leaves tugged at by the wind). d. other syntactic groups used attributively, e.g. A tremendous wrapping-up-and-throwing-away gesture (J. B. Priestley); An all-but-unbearable mixture (Lynne Reid Banks). 4. Collocations of adverb + adjective (or participle) are usually written as two words when attributive as well as when predicative, e.g. a less interesting topic, an amazingly good performance, but may very occasionally take a hyphen to avoid misunderstanding, e.g. Sir Edgar, who had heard one or two more-sophisticated rumours (Angus Wilson) (this does not mean 'one or two additional sophisticated rumours'). See also well. 5. When two words that form a close collocation but are not normally joined by a hyphen enter into combination with another word that requires a hyphen, it may be necessary to join them with a hyphen as well in order to avoid an awkward or even absurd result, e.g. natural gas needs no hyphen in natural gas pipeline, but natural- gas-producer may be preferred to the ambiguous natural gas-producer; crushed ice + -making looks odd in crushed ice-making machine, and so crushed-ice-making machine may be preferred. Occasionally a real distinction in meaning may be indicated, e.g. The non-German-speakers at the conference used interpreters versus The non-German speakers at the conference were all Austrians. Many people, however, prefer to avoid the use of long series of hyphened words. 6. A group of words that has been turned into a syntactic unit, often behaving as a different part of speech from the words of which it is composed, normally has hyphens, e.g. court-martial (verb), happy-go-lucky (adjective), good-for-nothing, stick-in-the-mud, ne'er-do-well (nouns). 7. A hyphen is used to indicate a common second element in all but the

last word of a list, e.g. two-, three-, or fourfold. B. Hyphens are also used within the word to connect a prefix or suffix to the stem. With most prefixes and suffixes it is normal to write the whole compound as a single word; the use of the hyphen is exceptional, and the writing of prefix or suffix and stem as two words virtually unknown. The hyphen is used in the following cases: 1. After a number of prefixes that are considered to be living formative elements, i.e. prefixes that can be freely used to form new compounds: ex- (formerly), e.g. ex-President; neo- (denoting a revived movement), e.g. neo-Nazism; non-, e.g. non-stick; pro- ( = in favour of), e.g. pro-marketeer; self-, e.g. self-destructive. Exceptions: Neoplatonism (-ic, etc.); selfsame, unselfconscious. 2. After a number of prefixes to aid recognition of the second element, e.g. anti-g, or to distinguish the compound from another word identically spelt, e.g. un-ionized (as against unionized); see also "co- prefix" in topic 1.15, "re- prefix" in topic 1.42. 3. Between a prefix ending with a vowel and a stem beginning with the same vowel, e.g. de-escalate, pre-empt; see also "co- prefix" in topic 1.15, "re- prefix" in topic 1.42. 4. Between a prefix and a stem beginning with a capital letter, e.g. anti-Darwinian, hyper-Calvinism, Pre-Raphaelite. 5. With some living suffixes forming specially coined compounds, e.g. Mickey Mouse-like; or still regarded to some extent as full words, such as -wise (= as regards -), e.g. Weather-wise we have had a good summer. 6. With suffixes in irregularly formed compounds, e.g. unget-at-able. 7. With the suffix -like after a stem ending in -l, e.g. eel-like, when attached to a word of two or more syllables, e.g. cabbage-like, and with the suffix -less after a stem ending in double -l, e.g. bell-less, will-lessness. Note: In Amer. spelling there is a greater tendency than in British spelling to write compounds as one word, rather than hyphened, e.g. nonplaying, nonprofit, roundhouse, runback, sandlot. 1.28 -ified or -yfied =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

-ified is usual, whatever the stem of the preceding element, e.g. citified countrified

But ladyfied. 1.29 in- or un-

dandified Frenchified

townified whiskified

=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

There is no comprehensive set of rules governing the choice between these two negative prefixes. The following guidelines are offered. Note that in- takes the form of il-, im-, or ir- before initial l, m, or r. 1. in- is from Latin and properly belongs to words derived from Latin, whereas un-, as a native prefix, has a natural ability to combine with any English word. Hence a. un- may be expected to spread to words originally having in-. This has happened when the in- word has developed a sense more specific than merely the negative of the stem word: unapt unartistic unhuman unmaterial unmoral unreligious unsanitary unsolvable

inept inartistic inhuman immaterial immoral irreligious insanitary insoluble

b. It is always possible, for the sake of a particular effect, for a writer to coin a nonce-word with un-: A small bullied-looking woman with unabundant brown hair (Kingsley Amis) Joyce's arithmetic is solid and unnonsensical (Anthony Burgess) 2. Adjectives ending in -ed and -ing rarely accept in- (while participles can of course be formed from verbs like inactivate, indispose, etc.). Exception: inexperienced. 3. in- seems to be preferred before the prefixes ad-, co- (col-, com-, con-, cor-), de-, di(s)-, ex-, per-. Important exceptions are: unadventurous uncooperative undevout uncommunicative undemonstrative unexceptionabIe unconditional undeniable unexceptional unconscionable undesirable unpersuasive unconscious undetectable

4. un- is preferred before the prefixes em-, en-, im-, in-, inte(r)-. 5. Adjectives ending in -able usually take in- if the stem preceding the suffix -able is not, by itself, an English word: educable, stem educ-, negative inpalpable, stem palp-, negative im-

Exceptions: unamenable, unamiable, unconscionable. They usually take un- if the stem has only one syllable and is an English word: unbridgeable unlovable

unreadable unsaleable

Exceptions: incurable, immovable, impassable (that cannot be traversed: impassible = unfeeling). But no generalization covers those with a polysyllabic English stem: illimitable invariable

undeniable unmistakable

Note: Rule 2 overrides rule 3 (e.g. uncomplaining, undisputed, unperturbed); rule 3 overrides rule 5 (unconscionable); rule 4 overrides rule 5 (unimpressible). 1.30 i to y =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

When the suffix -ing is added to words (chiefly verbs) that end in -ie, e is dropped (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17), and i becomes y, e.g. dying

lying

tying

vying

Exceptions: hie, sortie, stymie make hieing, sortieing, stymieing. 1.31 -ize and -ise =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

-ize should be preferred to -ise as a verbal ending in words in which both are in use. 1. The choice arises only where the ending is pronounced eyes, not where it is ice, iss or eez. So: precise, promise, expertise, remise. 2. The choice applies only to the verbal suffix (of Greek origin), added to nouns and adjectives with the sense 'make into, treat with, or act in the way of (that which is indicated by the stem word)'. Hence are eliminated a. nouns in -ise: compromise demise disguise enterprise

exercise franchise merchandise

revise surmise surprise

b. verbs corresponding to a noun which has -is- as a part of the stem (e.g. in the syllables -vis-, -cis-, -mis-), or identical with a noun in -ise. Some of the more common verbs in -ise are: advertise despise advise devise apprise disguise arise emprise chastise enfranchise circumcise enterprise comprise excise compromise exercise demise improvise

incise merchandise premise prise (open) revise supervise surmise surprise televise

3. In most cases, -ize verbs are formed on familiar English stems, e.g. authorize, familiarize, symbolize; or with a slight alteration to the stem, e.g. agonize, dogmatize, sterilize. A few words have no such immediate stem: aggrandize (cf. aggrandizement), appetize (cf. appetite), baptize (cf. baptism), catechize (cf. catechism), recognize (cf. recognition); and capsize. 1.32 l and ll =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Whether to write a single or double l can be a problem in the following cases: 1. Where a suffix is added to single final l: see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16. 2. l is single when it is the last letter of the following verbs: annul appal distil

enrol enthral extol

fulfil instil

These double the l before suffixes beginning with a vowel (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16), but not before -ment: annulment enrolment

enthralment fulfilment

distillation enthralling

° In Amer. spelling l is usually double in all these words except annul(ment), extol. 3. Final -ll is usually simplified to l before suffixes or word elements that begin with a consonant, e.g. almighty, almost, etc. fulfil chilblain gratefully dully instalment

skilful thraldom wilful

Exception: Before -ness, -ll remains in dullness, fullness. ° In Amer. spelling ll is usual in skillful, thralldom, willful. 1.33 -ly =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The suffix -ly is added to words (mainly nouns and adjectives) to form adjectives and adverbs, e.g. earth, earthly; part, partly; sad, sadly. With certain words one of the following spelling changes may be required: 1. If the word ends in double ll, add only -y, e.g. fully, shrilly. 2. If the word ends in consonant + le, change e to y, e.g. ably, singly, terribly. Exception: supplely (distinguished from the noun and verb supply). 3. If the word ends in consonant + y, change y to i and add -ly, e.g. drily, happily. Exceptions: shyly, slyly, spryly, wryly. 4. If he word ends in unstressed -ey, change ey to i and add -ly, e.g. matily. 5. If the word has more than one syllable and ends in -ic, add -ally, even if there is no corresponding adjective in -ical, e.g. basically, scientifically. Exceptions: politicly (from the adjective politic, distinguished from politically, from the adjective political), publicly ( ° not publically). 6. Final -e is exceptionally dropped before -ly in duly, eerily, truly, wholly (palely, puerilely, vilely, etc., are regular). 7. Final -y is exceptionally changed to i before -ly in daily, gaily (greyly, coyly are regular). 1.34 -ness =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

As a suffix added to adjectives, it may require the change of y to i: see "y to i" in topic 1.50 1.35 -or and -er =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

These two suffixes, denoting 'one who or that which performs (the action of the verb)' are from Latin ( through French) and Old English respectively, but their origin is not a sure guide to their distribution. 1. -er is the living suffix, forming most newly-coined agent nouns; but

-or is frequently used with words of Latin origin to coin technical terms. 2. -er is usual after doubled consonants (except -ss-), after soft c and g, after -i-, after ch and sh, and after -er, -graph, -ion, and -iz-, e.g. chopper, producer, avenger, qualifier, launcher, furnisher, discoverer, photographer, executioner, organizer. Principal exceptions: counsellor, carburettor, conqueror. 3. -or follows -at- to form a suffix -ator, often but not always in words related to verbs in -ate, e.g. duplicator, incubator. Exception: debater. Note: nouns in -olater, as idolater, do not contain the agent suffix. 4. No rule can predict whether a given word having -s-, -ss-, or -t(apart from -at-) before the suffix requires -or or -er. So supervisor, compressor, prospector, but adviser, presser, perfecter. -tor usually follows -c, unstressed i, and u, e.g. actor, compositor, executor; -ter usually follows f, gh, l, r, and s, e.g. drifter, fighter, defaulter, exporter, protester; but there are numerous exceptions. 5. A functional distinction is made between -or and -er in the following: accepter one who accepts acceptor (in scientific use) adapter one who adapts adaptor electrical device caster one who casts, castor beaver; plant giving oil; casting machine sugar (sprinkler); wheel censer vessel for incense censor official conveyer one who conveys conveyor device resister one who resists resistor electrical device sailer ship of specified sailor seaman power

6. A number of words have -er in normal use but -or in Law: abetter accepter granter

mortgager (mortgagor) settler

1.36 -oul=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

In the words mould, moulder, moult, and smoulder, Amer. spelling favours o alone instead of ou. 1.37 -our or -or =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. In agent nouns, only -or occurs as the ending (cf. -or and -er) e.g.

actor, counsellor. Exception: saviour. 2. In abstract nouns, -our is usual, e.g. colour, favour, humour. Only the following end in -or: error horror languor liquor

pallor squalor stupor

terror torpor tremor

° In Amer. English -or is usual in nearly all words in which British English has -our (glamour and saviour are the main exceptions). 3. Nouns in -our change this to -or before the suffixes -ation, -iferous, -ific, -ize, and -ous, e.g. coloration, humorous, odoriferous, soporific, vaporize, vigorous. But -our keeps the u before -able, -er, -ful, -ism, -ist, -ite, and -less, e.g. armourer, behaviourism, colourful, favourite, honourable, labourite, odourless, rigourist. 1.38 past of verbs, formation of =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

A. Regular verbs add -ed for the past tense and past participle, and may make the following spelling changes: 1. Doubling of final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16). 2. Dropping of silent -e (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17). 3. Change of y to i (see "y to i" in topic 1.50). Note laid, paid, and said from lay, pay, and say. B. A number of verbs vary in their past tense and past participle between a regular form and a form with -t (and in some cases a different vowel-sound in the stem): burn dream

kneel lean

leap learn

smell spell

spill spoil

The -t form is usual in Received Pronunciation (see Received Pronunciation in topic 2.0) and should be written by those who pronounce it. The regular form is usual in Amer. English. Bereaved is regular when the reference is to the loss of relatives by death; bereft is used when the reference is to loss of immaterial possessions.

Cleave is a rare word with two opposite meanings: (i) = stick; A man . . shall cleave unto his wife (Genesis 2:24) (regular). (ii) = split; past tense clave is archaic; clove, cleft, and regular cleaved are all permissible, but cleaved is usual in scientific and technical contexts; past participle, in fixed expressions, cloven-footed, cloven hoof, cleft palate, cleft stick; cleaved is technical, but probably also best used outside the fixed expressions. ° Earn is regular. There is no form earnt. C. A number of verbs vary in the past participle only between the regular form and one ending in -(e)n: hew, mow, saw, sew, shear, show, sow, strew, swell. In most of these the latter form is to be preferred; in British English it is obligatory when the participle is used attributively as an adjective. So new-mown hay, a sawn-off (Amer. sawed-off) shotgun, shorn (not sheared) of one's strength, a swollen gland; swollen or swelled head (= conceit) is a colloquial exception. D. The past tense has -a-, the past participle -u-, in begin drink ring

shrink sing sink

stink swim

° It is an error to use begun, drunk, etc. for the past tense, as if they followed clung, flung, spun, etc. E. The past tense and past participle of the following verbs can cause difficulty: abide (by) makes abided alight makes alighted bet: betted is increasingly common beside bet bid (make a bid): bid bid (command; say (goodnight, etc.)): bid is usual (bade, bidden are archaic) broadcast unchanged in past tense and past participle chide: chided is now usual (older chid) forecast unchanged in past tense and past participle hang: hanged is frequent for the capital punishment; otherwise only hung knit: knitted is usual, but knit is common in metaphorical use (he knit his brows) light makes past lit, past participle lit in predicative use (a fire was lit) but lighted attributively (a lighted match) quit makes quitted ° Amer. quit reeve (nautical) makes rove rid unchanged in past tense and past participle speed makes sped but speeded in the senses 'cause to go at (a certain) speed' and 'travel at illegal or dangerous speed' spit makes spat ° Amer. spit stave (to dent) staved or

stove; (to ward off) staved sweat makes sweated ° Amer. sweat thrive: thrived is increasingly common beside throve, thriven 1.39 plural formation =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Most nouns simply add -s, e.g. cats, dogs, horses, cameras. A. The regular plural suffix -s is preceded by -e-: 1. After sibilant consonants, where ease of pronunciation requires a separating vowel, i.e. after ch: e.g. benches, coaches, matches (but not conchs, lochs, stomachs where the ch has a different sound) s: e.g. buses, gases, pluses, yeses (note that single s is not doubled) sh: e.g. ashes, bushes ss: e.g. grasses, successes x: e.g. boxes, sphinxes z: e.g. buzzes, waltzes (note quizzes with doubling of z) Proper names follow the same rule, e.g. the Joneses, the Rogerses, the two Charleses. ° -es should not be replaced by an apostrophe, as the Jones'. 2. After -y (not preceded by a vowel), which changes to i, e.g. ladies, soliloquies, spies. Exceptions: proper names, e.g. the Willoughbys, the three Marys; also trilbys, lay-bys, standbys, zlotys (Polish currency). 3. After -o in certain words: bravoes (= ruffians; haloes potatoes bravos = shouts heroes salvoes (= disof 'bravo!') innuendoes charges salvos buffaloes mangoes = reservations, calicoes mementoes excuses) cargoes mosquitoes stuccoes dingoes mottoes tomatoes dominoes Negroes tornadoes echoes noes torpedoes embargoes peccadilloes vetoes goes porticoes volcanoes grottoes

Words not in this list add only -s. It is helpful to remember that -e- is never inserted: a. when the o is preceded by another vowel, e.g. cuckoos, embryos, ratios.

b. when the word is an abbreviation, e.g. hippos, kilos. c. with proper names, e.g. Lotharios, Figaros, the Munros. 4. With words which change final f to v (see "f to v" in topic 1.25), e.g. calves, scarves. B. Plural of compound nouns. 1. Compounds made up of a noun followed by an adjective, a prepositional phrase, or an adverb attach -s to the noun, e.g. (a)

courts martial heirs presumptive cousins-german poets laureate

But brigadier-generals, lieutenant-colonels, sergeant-majors. (b)

men-of-war sons-in-law

tugs of war

(c)

hangers-on runners-up

whippers-in

Note: In informal usage -s is not infrequently transferred to the second element of compounds of type (a). 2. Compounds which contain no noun, or in which the noun element is now disguised, add -s at the end. So also do nouns formed from phrasal verbs and compounds ending in -ful, e.g. (a)

ne'er-do-wells forget-me-nots

(b)

pullovers run-throughs

(c)

handfuls

will-o'-the-wisps

set-ups

spoonfuls

3. Compounds containing man or woman make both elements plural, as usually do those made up of two words linked by and, e.g. (a)

(b)

gentlemen ushers menservants pros and cons

women doctors

ups and downs

C. The plural of the following nouns with a singular in -s is unchanged: biceps congeries forceps innings

means mews series

species superficies thrips

The following are mass nouns, not plurals:

bona fides (= 'good faith'), kudos

° The singulars bona-fide (as a noun; there is an adjective bona-fide), congery, kudo, sometimes seen, are erroneous. D. Plural of nouns of foreign origin. The terminations that may form their plurals according to a foreign pattern are given in alphabetical order below; to each is added a list of the words that normally follow this pattern. It is recommended that the regular plural (in -s) should be used for all the other words with these terminations, even though some are found with either type of plural. 1. -a (Latin and Greek) becomes -ae: alga alumna

lamina larva

nebula papilla

Note: formula has -ae in mathematical and scientific use. 2. -eau, -eu (French) add -x: beau bureau

chateau milieu

plateau tableau

3. -ex, -ix (Latin) become -ices: appendix calix

cortex helix

matrix radix

Note: index, vortex have -ices in mathematical and scientific use (otherwise regular). 4. -is (Greek and Latin) becomes -es (pronounced eez): amanuensis crisis oasis analysis ellipsis parenthesis antithesis hypothesis synopsis axis metamorphosis thesis basis

5. -o (Italian) becomes -i: concerto grosso (concerti grossi) graffito ripieno maestro virtuoso

Note: solo and soprano sometimes have -i in technical contexts (otherwise regular). 6. -on (Greek) becomes -a: criterion

parhelion

phenomenon

Note: The plural of automaton is in -a when used collectively (otherwise regular). 7.

-s (French) is unchanged in the plural (Note: it is silent in the singular, but pronounced -z in the plural): chamois chassis

corps faux pas

fracas patois

Also (not a noun in French): rendezvous. 8. -um (Latin) becomes -a: addendum bacterium candelabrum compendium corrigendum cranium crematorium curriculum

datum desideratum dictum effluvium emporium epithalamium erratum

maximum minimum quantum scholium spectrum speculum stratum

Note: medium in scientific use, and in the sense 'a means of communication' (as mass medium ) has plural in -a; the collective plural of memorandum 'things to be noted' is in -a; rostrum has -a in technical use; otherwise these words are regular. In the technical sense 'starting-point' datum has a regular plural. 9. -us (Latin) becomes -i: alumnus bacillus bronchus cactus calculus

fungus gladiolus locus narcissus

nucleus radius stimulus terminus

Note: focus has plural in -i in scientific use, but otherwise is regular; genius has plural genii when used to mean 'guardian spirit', but in its usual sense is regular; corpus, genus, opus become corpora, genera, opera. ° The following words of foreign origin are plural nouns; they should normally not be construed as singulars (see also as separate entries in Vocabulary): bacteria candelabra criteria data

graffiti insignia media

phenomena regalia strata

E. There is no need to use an apostrophe before -s:

1. After figures: the 1890s. 2. After abbreviations: MPs, SOSs. But it is needed in: dot the i's and cross the t's, fair do's, do's and don'ts. 1.40 possessive case =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

To form the possessive: 1. Normally, add -'s in the singular and -s' (i.e. apostrophe following the plural suffix -s) in the plural, e.g. Bill's book the Johnsons' dog his master's voice a girls' school

Nouns that do not form plural in -s add -'s to the plural form, e.g. children's books

women's liberation

2. Nouns ending in s add 's for the singular possessive, e.g. boss's Hicks's Burns's St James's Square Charles's Tess's Father Christmas's Thomas's

To form the plural possessive, they add an apostrophe to the s of the plural in the normal way, e.g. bosses' the Joneses' dog

the octopuses' tentacles the Thomases' dog

French names ending in silent s or x add -'s, which is pronounced as z, e.g. Dumas's (= Dumah's)

Cr‚mieux's

Names ending in -es pronounced iz are treated like plurals and take only an apostrophe (following the pronunciation, which is iz, not iziz), e.g. Bridges' Hodges'

Moses' Riches'

Polysyllables not accented on the last or second last syllable can take the apostrophe alone, but the form with -'s is equally acceptable, e.g. Barnabas'

Barnabas's

Nicholas'

Nicholas's

It is the custom in classical works to use the apostrophe only, irrespective of pronunciation, for ancient classical names ending in -s, e.g. Ceres' Herodotus' Demosthenes' Mars'

Venus' Xerxes'

Jesus' 'is an accepted liturgical archaism' (Hart's Rules, p. 3l). But in non-liturgical use, Jesus's is acceptable (used, e.g., in the NEB, John 2: 3). With the possessive preceding the word sake, be guided by the pronunciation, e.g. for goodness' sake but for conscience' sake (!)

for God's sake for Charles's sake

After -x and -z, use -'s, e.g. Ajax's, Berlioz's music, Leibniz's law, Lenz's law. 3. Expressions such as: a fortnight's holiday a pound's worth your money's worth

two weeks' holiday two pounds' worth

contain possessives and should have apostrophes correctly placed. 4. In I'm going to the butcher's, grocer's, etc. there is a possessive with ellipsis of the word 'shop'. The same construction is used in I'm going to Brown's, Green's, etc., so that properly an apostrophe is called for. Where a business calls itself Brown, Green, or the like (e.g. Marks and Spencer, J. Sainsbury) the apostrophe would be expected before -s. But many businesses use the title Browns, Greens, etc., without an apostrophe (e.g. Debenhams, Barclays Bank). No apostrophe is necessary in a Debenhams store or in (go to or take to) the cleaners. 5. The apostrophe must not be used: a. with the plural non-possessive -s: notices such as TEA'S are often seen, but are wrong. b. with the possessive of pronouns: hers, its, ours, theirs, yours; the possessive of who is whose. ° it's = it is; who's = who is. ° There are no words her's, our's, their's, your's. 1.41 -re or -er =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The principal words in which the ending -re (with the unstressed er sound--there are others with the sound ruh, e.g. macabre, or ray, e.g. padre) is found are:

accoutre centre louvre * acre * euchre * lucre amphitheatre fibre lustre * cadre goitre manoeuvre calibre litre * massacre * meagre ochre sepulchre * mediocre * ogre sombre metre (note meter philtre sceptre the measuring reconnoitre theatre device) sabre titre mitre spectre * wiseacre nitre ° All but those marked * are spelt with -er in Amer. English. 1.42 re- prefix =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

This prefix is followed by a hyphen: 1. Before another e, e.g. re-echo, re-entry. 2. So as to distinguish the compound so formed from the more familiar identically spelt word written solid, e.g. re-cover (put new cover on): recover re-form (form again): reform re-sign (sign again): resign 1.43 silent final consonants =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Words borrowed from French having silent final consonants give difficulty when inflexions are added to them: A. In the plural: see "plural formation" in topic 1.39. B. In the possessive: see "possessive case" in topic 1.40. C. With verbal inflexions: see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17. 1.44 -s suffix =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

A. As the inflexion of the plural of nouns: see plural formation. B. As the inflexion of the third person singular present indicative of verbs, it requires the same changes in the stem as the plural ending, namely the insertion of -e-:

1. After sibilants (ch, s, sh, x, z), e.g. catches, tosses, pushes, fixes, buzzes; note that single s and z are subject to doubling of final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16) though the forms in which they occur are rare, e.g. gasses, nonplusses, quizzes, whizzes. 2. After y, which is subject to the change of y to i (see 1.50), e.g. cries, flies, carries, copies. 3. After o: echo, go, torpedo, veto, like the corresponding nouns, insert -e- before -s; crescendo, radio, solo, zero should follow their nouns in having -s, but in practice there is variation. 1.45 -xion or -ction =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Complexion, crucifixion, effluxion, fluxion, genuflexion, inflexion all have -x-; connection, reflection (which formerly sometimes had -x-) have -ct-; deflexion is increasingly being replaced by deflection. ° In Amer. spelling -ction is more usual in connection, deflection, genuflection, inflection, reflection. 1.46 -y, -ey, or -ie nouns =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The diminutive or pet form of nouns can be spelt -y, -ey, or -ie. The majority of nouns which end in the sound of -y are so spelt (whether diminutives or of other origin), e.g. aunty baby

granny missy

nappy potty

The following are the main diminutives spelt with -ey (-ey nouns of other kinds are excluded from the list): goosey lovey-dovey housey-housey matey Limey nursey

Sawney slavey

The following list contains the diminutives in -ie, together with a number of similar nouns that are not in fact diminutives but do end in -ie. Note that most Scottish diminutives are spelt with -ie, e.g. corbie, kiltie. beanie genie (spirit; birdie plural genii) bookie Geordie brownie gillie budgie girlie caddie (golf; tea caddy) goalie chappie hippie charlie junkie clippie Kewpie (doll)

movie nightie oldie pinkie (little finger) pixie quickie rookie sheltie

cookie laddie softie coolie lassie Tin Lizzie dearie mealie (maize; walkie-talkie doggie (noun; mealy adjective) zombie doggy adjective) mountie

Note: bogie (wheeled undercarriage), bogey (golf), bogy (ghost). 1.47 -y or -ey adjectives =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

When -y is added to a word to form an adjective, the following changes in spelling occur: 1. Doubling of final consonant (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16). 2. Dropping of silent -e (see "dropping of silent -e" in topic 1.17). Exceptions: a. After u: bluey

gluey

tissuey

b. In words that are not well established in the written language, where the retention of -e helps to clarify the sense: cagey cottagey dicey

dikey matey pacey

pricey villagey

Note also holey (distinguished from holy); phoney (of unknown origin). 3. Insertion of -e- when -y is also the final letter of the stem: clayey

skyey

sprayey

wheyey

Also in gooey. 4. Adjectives ending in unstressed -ey (2 (a) and (b) and 3 above) change this -ey to -i- before the comparative and superlative suffixes -er and -est and the adverbial suffix -ly, e.g. cagey: cagily dicey: dicier gooey: gooier

matey: matily pacey: pacier

pricey: pricier phoney: phonily

Before -ness there is variation, e.g. cagey: cageyness

matey: mateyness,

phoney: phoniness

clayey: clayeyness matiness

wheyey: wheyiness

1.48 y or i =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

There is often uncertainty about whether y or i should be written in the following words:

Write i in: Write y in: cider gypsy cipher lyke-wake dike lynch law Libya pygmy lich-gate style (manner) linchpin stylus sibyl (classical) stymie sillabub Sybil (frequently as Christian name) silvan syrup siphon tyke siren tympanum (ear-drum) stile (in fence) tyre (of wheel) timpani(drums) wych-elm tiro wych-hazel 1.49 -yse or -yze =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

This verbal ending (e.g. in analyse, catalyse, paralyse) is not a suffix but part of the Greek stem -lyse. It should not be written with z (though z is normally used in such words in America). 1.50 y to i =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Words that end in -y change this to -i- before certain suffixes. The conditions are: A. When the -y is not preceded by a vowel (except -u -in -guy, -quy). -y does not change to -i- when preceded by a vowel (other than u in -guy, -quy). So enjoyable, conveyed, parleyed, gayer, gayest, donkeys, buys, employer, joyful, coyly, enjoyment, greyness. Exceptions: daily, gaily, and adjectives ending in unstressed -ey (see "-y or -ey adjectives" in topic 1.47). B. When the suffix is: 1. -able, e.g. deniable, justifiable, variable. Exception: flyable. 2. -ed (the past tense and past participle), e.g. carried, denied, tried.

3. -er (agent-noun suffix), e.g. carrier, crier, supplier. Exceptions: flyer, fryer, shyer (one who, a horse which, shies), skyer (in cricket). Note that drier, prier, trier (one who tries) are regular. 4. -er, -est (comparative and superlative); e.g. drier, driest; happier, happiest. 5.

-es (noun plural and third person singular present indicative), e.g. ladies, soliloquies, spies; carries, denies, tries. Exceptions: see "plural formation" in topic 1.39

6. -ful (adjectives), e.g. beautiful, fanciful. (Bellyful is a noun, not an adjective.) 7. -less (adjectives), e.g. merciless, remediless. Exceptions: some rare compounds, e.g. countryless, hobbyless, partyless. 8. -ly (adverbs), e.g. drily, happily, plaguily. Exceptions: shyly, slyly, spryly, wryly. 9. -ment (nouns), e.g. embodiment, merriment. 10. -ness (nouns), e.g. happiness, cliquiness. Exceptions: dryness, flyness, shyness, slyness, spryness, wryness; busyness (distinguished from business). 1.51 Difficult and confusable spellings =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=(not covered in previous entries) The list below contains words (i) which occasion difficulty in spelling; (ii) of which various spellings exist; or (iii) which need to be distinguished from other words spelt similarly. In each case the recommended form is given, and in some cases, for the sake of clarity, is followed by the rejected variant. Where the rejected variant is widely separated in alphabetical position from the recommended form, the former has been given an entry preceded by the mark and followed by 'use' and the recommended form. The wording added to some entries constitutes a guide to the sense, not an exhaustive definition or description. accommodation adaptation ° not adaption adviser ° aerie: use eyrie

affront agriculturist ait ° not eyot align, alignment ° not aline, alinement alleluia almanac (almanack only in some titles) aluminium ° Amer. aluminum ambiance (term in art) ambience surroundings amok ° not amuck ampere annex (verb) annexe (noun) any one (of a number) anyone anybody any time any way any manner anyway at all events apophthegm ° Amer. apothegm apostasy archaeology artefact aubretia aught anything autarchy despotism autarky self-sufficiency auxiliary ay yes (plural the ayes have it) aye always

babu ° not baboo bachelor bail out obtain release, relieve financially bale out parachute from aircraft balk (verb) balmy like balm barmy (informal) mad baulk timber bayoneted, -ing behove ° Amer. behoove bivouac (noun and verb) bivouacked, bivouacking blond (of man or his hair) blonde (of woman or her hair) born: be born (of child) borne: have borne have carried or given birth to; be borne be carried: be borne by be carried by or given birth to by (a mother) brand-new brier ° not briar bur clinging seed burr rough edge, drill, rock, accent, etc. cabbala, cabbalistic caftan calendar almanac calender press caliph calligraphy calliper leg support; (plural) compasses ° not caliper callous (adjective) callus (noun)

camellia shrub canvas (noun) cloth canvas (verb) to cover with canvas (past canvased) canvass (verb) (past canvassed) carcass caviare chameleon chancellor chaperon Charollais cheque (bank) chequer (noun) pattern (verb) variegate; ° Amer. checker chilli pepper choosy chord combination of notes, line joining points on curve chukka boot chukker (polo) clarinettist ° Amer. clarinetist coco palm cocoa chocolate coconut colander strainer commit(ment) comparative complement make complete, that which makes complete compliment praise computer conjuror connection

conqueror conscientious consensus cord string, flex, spinal cord, rib of cloth cornelian ° not carnelian corslet armour, underwear cosy ° Amer. cozy council assembly councillor member of council counsel advice, barrister counsellor adviser court martial (noun) court-martial (verb) crape black fabric crˆpe crape fabric other than black; rubber; pancake crevasse large fissure in ice crevice small fissure crosier crumby covered in crumbs crummy (informal) dirty, inferior curb restrain, restraint curtsy ° czar use tsar dare say ° not daresay debonair depositary (person) depository (place) descendant desiccated

despatch: use dispatch deterrable devest (only Law: gen. use divest) didicoi (tinker) dilatation (medical) dilator dinghy boat dingy grimy disc ° Amer. disk discreet judicious discrete separate disk (sometimes in computing) ° Amer. in all senses of disc dispatch dissect dissociate ° not disassociate disyllable divest doily douse quench dowse use divining rod draft (noun) military party, money order, rough sketch (verb) sketch ° Amer. in all senses of draught draftsman one who drafts documents draught act of drawing, take of fish, act of drinking, vessel's depth, current of air ° Amer. draft draughtsman one who makes drawings, plans, etc; piece in game of draughts duffel ecology ecstasy

ecumenical educationist ° not educationalist effrontery ° eikon: use icon eirenicon ° not irenicon embarrassment embed employee (masculine and feminine; no accent) enclose enclosure (but Inclosure Acts) encroach encyclopaedia envelop (verb) envelope (noun) erector every one (of a number) everyone everybody exalt raise, praise exult rejoice ° eyot: use ait eyrie ° not aerie faecal faeces fee'd (a fee'd lawyer) feldspar feldspathic felloe (of wheel) ° not felly ferrule cap on stick ferule cane

fetid ° not foetid flotation flu ° not 'flu foetal, foetus ° Amer. fetal, fetus fogy forbade (past tense of forbid) forestall for ever for always forever continually forty fount (type) ° Amer. font fungous (adjective) fungus (noun) furore ° Amer. furor fusilier fusillade gaol (official use ° Amer. jail (both forms found in Brit. literary use) gaoler (as for gaol) gauge (measure) gazump ° not gazoomph, etc. gibe jeer gild make gold ° gild association: use guild glycerine gormandize eat greedily gormless gourmand glutton gram gramophone

grandad granddaughter grayling (fish, butterfly) grey ° Amer. gray griffin fabulous creature ° not gryphon griffon vulture, dog grill for cooking grille grating grisly terrible grizzly grey-haired; bear groin (anatomy; architecture) grommet ° not grummet groyne breakwater guerrilla guild association gybe (nautical) ° Amer. jibe haema-, haemo- (prefix meaning 'blood') haemorrhage haemorrhoids hallelujah hallo harass hark harum-scarum haulm stem hearken hiccup Hindu hom*oeopathy

hom*ogeneous having parts all the same hom*ogenize make hom*ogeneous hom*ogenous having common descent honorific ° hooping cough use whooping cough horsy horticulturist hurrah; hurray ° not hooray, hooray hussy ° not huzzy hypocrisy hypocrite icon idiosyncrasy idyll ignoramus plural ignoramuses ° imbed: use embed impinging impostor ° inclose, inclosure: use enincommunicado in so far insomuch inure investor irenic ° irenicon: use eirenicon its of it it's it is jail (see gaol)

jailor (see gaol) jalopy jam pack tightly; conserve jamb door-post ° jibe: use gibe, gybe ° Amer. also = accord with joust combat ° not just ° kabbala: use cabbala ° kaftan: use caftan kebab kerb pavement ° Amer. curb ketchup ° khalif use caliph kilogram kilometre koala Koran kowtow labyrinth lachrymal of tears lachrymose tearful lackey lacquer lacrimal (in science) lacrimate, -ation -atory (in science) largess ledger account book leger line (in music) licensee lickerish greedy

lightening making light lightning (accompanying thunder) limeade linage number of lines lineage ancestry lineament feature liniment embrocation liqueur flavoured alcoholic liquor liquor liquorice litchi Chinese fruit literate literature litt‚rateur littoral loadstone loath(some) adjectives loathe (verb) lodestar longevity longitude ° not longtitude lour frown Mac (prefix) spelling depends on the custom of the one bearing the name, and this must be followed; in alphabetical arrangement, treat as Mac however spelt. Mac, Mc, M(c) or M' mac (informal) mackintosh mackintosh maharaja maharanee ° Mahomet: use Muhammad

mamma mandolin manikin dwarf, anatomical model manila hemp, paper manilla African bracelet mannequin (live) model manoeuvrable ° Amer. maneuverable mantel(piece) mantel cloak marijuana marquis marshal (noun and verb) marten weasel martial of war (martial law) martin bird marvellous ° Amer. marvelous matins matt lustreless medieval not ° mediaeval menagerie mendacity lying mendicity the state of being a beggar millenary of a thousand; thousandth anniversay millennium thousand years millepede milli- (prefix meaning one-thousandth) milometer ° not mileometer miniature minuscule ° not miniscule

mischievous ° not mischievious miscible (in science) missel-thrush missis (slang) ° not missus misspell mistletoe mixable mizen (nautical) moneyed moneys mongoose (plural mongooses) moustache ° Amer. mustache mouth (verb) ° not mouthe mucous (adjective) mucus (noun) Muhammad murky Muslim ° not Moslem na‹ive, na‹vety naught nothing n‚glig‚ negligible net not subject to deduction nonet nonsuch unrivalled person or thing no one nobody nought the figure zero numskull nurseling ° Amer. nursling

O (interjection) used to form a vocative (O Caesar) and when not separated by punctuation from what follows (O for the wings of a dove) octet °of: not to be written instead of have in such constructions as 'Did you go?' 'I would have if it hadn't rained.' omelette on to ° not onto orangeade Orangeism orang-utan outcast person cast out outcaste (India) person with no caste ouzel oyez! paediatric palaeo- (prefix = ancient) palate roof of mouth palette artist's board pallet mattress, part of machine, organ valve, platform for loads pallor panda animal pander pimp; to gratify panellist ° Amer. panelist paraffin parakeet parallel, paralleled, paralleling partisan pasha pastel (crayon) pastille

pavior pawpaw (fruit) ° not papaw pedal (noun) foot lever (verb) operate pedal peddle follow occupation of pedlar; trifle pederast pedigreed pedlar vendor of small wares ° Amer. peddler peen (verb) strike with pein peewit pein of hammer Pekingese dog, inhabitant of Peking ° not Pekinese peninsula (noun) peninsular (adjective) pennant (nautical) piece of rigging, flag pennon (military) long narrow flag phone (informal) telephone ° not 'phone phoney pi pious pidgin simplified language pie jumbled type piebald pigeon bird; not one's pigeon not one's affair piggy back ° not pick-a-back pi-jaw pilaff ° not pilau, pilaw pimento ° not pimiento plane (informal) aeroplane ° not 'plane plenitude ° not plentitude plimsoll (shoe) ° not plimsole

plough ° Amer. plow pommel knob, saddle-bow poppadam postilion powwow predacious ° not predaceous predominant(ly) ° not predominate(ly) premise (verb) to say as introduction premises (plural noun) foregoing matters, building premiss (in logic) proposition primeval principal chief principle fundamental truth, moral basis prise force open Prive Council Privy Counsellor program (in computing) ° Amer. in all senses programme (general) proletariat promoter pukka pummel pound with fists pupillage putt (in golf) pyjamas ° Amer. pajamas quadraphony, quadrophonic ° not quadri- or quadroquartet quatercentenary ° not quarterquestionnaire

quintet rabbet groove in woodwork (also rebate) racket (for ball games) ° not racquet rackets game racoon ° not raccoon radical (chemistry) radicle (botany) raja ° not rajah rarity rattan plant, cane (also rotan) raze ° not rase razzmatazz recce (slang) reconnaissance recompense Renaissance ° not Renascence renege ° not renegue repairable (of material) able to be repaired reparable (of loss) able to be made good reverend (deserving reverence; title of clergy) reverent (showing reverence) review survey, reconsideration, report revue musical entertainment rhyme ° not rime riband (sport, heraldry) ribbon rigor (medical) shivering-fit rigour severity Riley (slang: the life of Riley) rill stream

rille (on moon) rime frost rogues' gallery role (no accent) roly-poly Romania rule the roost ° not roast rumba ° not rhumba saccharin (adjective) salutary beneficial salutatory welcoming sanatorium ° Amer. sanitarium Sanhedrin satire literary work satiric(al) of satire satyr woodland deity satyric of Greek drama with satyrs savannah scallop ° not scollop scallywag ° Amer. scalawag sceptic ° Amer. skeptic scrimmage tussle ° also term in Amer. football scrummage (Rugby) sear to scorch, wither(ed) secrecy seigneur feudal lord seigneurial of a seigneur seigniory lordship selvage

septet sere catch of gun-lock; term in ecology sergeant (military, police) serjeant (law) sestet (in a sonnet) ° sett (noun): use set sextet (in music, etc.) Shakespearian shanty hut, song sheath (noun) sheathe (verb) sheikh shemozzle rumpus sherif Muslim leader sheriff county officer show ° not shew sibylline Sinhalise slew turn ° not slue smart alec smooth (adjective and verb) ° not smoothe sobriquet somersault some time (come and see me some time) sometime former, formerly spirituel (masculine and feminine) having refinement of mind spurt squirearchy stanch (verb) stop a fow

State (capital S for the political unit) stationary (adjective) at rest stationery (noun) papaer, etc. staunch loyal stoep (South Africa) veranda storey division of building ° Amer. story storeyed having storeys storied celebrated in story stoup for holy water, etc. straight without curve strait narrow sty for pigs; swelling on eyelid ° not stye subsidiary sulphur ° Amer. sulfur sumac summons (noun) a command to appear (plural summonses) summons (verb) issue a summons (inflected summonsed) swap ° not swop sycamine, sycomore (Biblical trees) sycamore (member of maple genus) syllabication ° not syllabification synthesist, synthesize ° not synthetteasel (plant) teetotalism teetotaller tehee (laugh) tell (archaeology) template ° not templet tetchy

thank you ° not thankyou tic contraction of muscles tick-tack semaphonre titbit ° Amer. tidbit titillate excite titivate smarten up today tomorrow tonight tonsillar, tonsillitis t'other toupee Trades Union Congress trade union traipse trudge ° not trapes tranquil tranquillity, tranquillize transferable tranship(ment) transonic transsexual trolley troop assembly of soldiers trooper member of troop troupe company of performers trouper member of troupe tsar Turco- (combining form of Turkish) tympanum ear-drum

'un (informal for one) underlie, underlying unequivocal, -ally ° not unequivocable, -ably valance curtain, drapery valence (in chemistry) Vandyke beard, brown veld vendor veranda vermilion vice tool ° Amer. vise villain evil-doer villein serf visor ° not vizor wagon waiver forgoing of legal right warrior wastable waver be unsteady way: under way not ° under weigh whiskey (Irish) whisky (Scothch) Whit Monday, Sunday Whitsunday (Scottish; not a Sunday) whiz whooping cough who's who is whose of whom wistaria ° not wisteria

withhold woeful ° not woful wrath anger wreath (noun) wreathe (verb) wroth angry yoghurt 2.0 Pronunciation =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=For one thing, you speak quite differently from Roy. Now mind you, I'm not saying that one kind of voice is better than another kind, although ... the B.B.C. seems to have very definite views on the subject. (Marghanita Laski, The Village) This section aims at resolving the uncertainty felt by many speakers both about some of the general variations in the pronunciation of English, and about a large number of individual words whose pronunciation is variable. Accordingly, the section is in two parts: A, general points of pronunciation, and B, a list of preferred pronunciations. The aim of recommending one type of pronunciation rather than another, or of giving a word a recommended spoken form, naturally implies the existence of a standard. There are of course many varieties of English, even within the limits of the British Isles, but it is not the business of this section to describe them. The treatment here is based upon Received Pronunciation (RP), namely 'the pronunciation of that variety of British English widely considered to be least regional, being originally that used by educated speakers in southern England'. (1) This is not to suggest that other varieties are inferior; rather, RP is here taken as a neutral national standard, just as it is in its use in broadcasting or in the teaching of English as a foreign language. (1) A Supplement to the OED, Volume 3

2.1 A. General points of pronunciation =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

This first part of Pronunciationis concerned with general variations and uncertainties in pronunciation. Even when RP alone is taken as the model, it is impossible to lay down a set of rules that will establish the correct pronunciation of every word and hold it constant, since pronunciation is continually changing. Some changes affect a particular sound in its every occurrence throughout the vocabulary, while others occur only in the environment of a few other sounds. Some changes occur gradually and imperceptibly; some are limited to a section of the

community. At any time there is bound to be considerable variation in pronunciation. One of the purposes of the entries that follow is to draw attention to such variation and to indicate the degree of acceptability of each variant in standard English. Uncertainty about pronunciation also arises from the irregularity of English spelling. It is all too often impossible to guess how a particular letter or group of letters in an unfamiliar word should be pronounced. Broadly speaking, there are particular letters and letter sequences which repeatedly cause such uncertainty (e.g. g (hard and soft); final -ed; final -ade). To settle these uncertainties is the other main purpose of the entries that follow. The entries are arranged in alphabetical order of heading; the headings are not, of course, complete words, but are either individual letters of the alphabet or sequences of letters making up parts (usually the beginnings or endings) of words. Some entries cover sounds that are spelt in various ways: the heading given is the typical spelling. There are also three entries of a different sort: they deal with (a) the main distinguishing features of American pronunciation, (b) the reduction of common words in rapid speech, and (c) patterns of stress. 2.2 a =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. There is variation in the pronunciation of a between the sound heard in calm, father and that heard in cat, fan, in a. the suffix -graph (in photograph, telegraph, etc.) and b. the prefix trans- (as in transfer, translate, etc.). a. In -graph, a as in calm seems to be the more generally acceptable form in RP. Note that when the suffix - ic is added (e.g. in photographic), only a as in cat can be used. b. In trans-, either kind of a is acceptable. 2. The word endings -ada, -ade, and -ado occasion difficulty, since in some words the pronunciation of the a is as in calm, in others as in made. a. In -ada words, a is as in calm, e.g. armada, cicada. b. In most -ade words, a is as in made, e.g. accolade, barricade, cavalcade. Exceptions: a as in calm in aubade ballade charade

fa‡ade roulade pomade saccade promenade

and in unassimilated loan-words from French, e.g. d‚gringolade, oeillade. c. In most -ado words, a is as in calm, e.g. aficionado

bravado

amontillado avocado

desperado Mikado

Exceptions: a as in made in bastinado, gambado, tornado. 3. a in the word-ending -alia is like a in alien, e.g. in marginalia, pastoralia, penetralia. 4. a before ls and lt in many words is pronounced either like aw in bawl or o in doll, e.g. in alter false

halt palsy

salt waltz

The same variation occurs with au in fault, vault. Note: in several words a before Is and It can only be pronounced like a in sally, e.g. Alsation alter ego

altruism salsify caltrop saltation

5. The word endings -ata, -atum, and -atus occasion difficulty. In most words the a is pronounced as in mate, e.g. in apparatus flatus datum (plural data) hiatus desideratum (plural meatus desiderata) ultimatum Exceptions: cantata, erratum, sonata, toccata with a as in calm; stratum, stratus with a as in mate or as in calm. 2.3 -age =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The standard pronunciation of the following words of French origin ending in -age is with stress on the first syllable, a as in calm, and g as in r‚gime. barrage fuselage camouflage garage dressage massage

mirage montage sabotage

Note that collage is stressed on the second syllable. ° The pronunciation of -age as in cabbage in any of these words is non-standard. The placing of the stress on the final syllable in some of these words is a feature of Amer. pronunciation. ÜThe substitution of the sound of g as in large for that in r‚gime by some speakers in several of these words is acceptable. 2.4 American pronunciation =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Where the Amer. pronunciation of individual forms and words significantly differs from the British, this is indicated as part of the individual

entries in this Section. There remain certain constant features of 'General American' (2) pronunciation that, being generally distributed, are not worth noting for every word or form in which they occur. The principal features are these: 1. r is sounded wherever it is written, i.e. after vowels finally and before consonants, as well as before vowels, e.g. in burn, car, form. 2. The sound of I is 'dark' (as in British bell, fill) everywhere; the British sound of l as in land, light is not used. 3. (t)t between vowels sounds like d (and this d often sounds like a kind of r), e.g. in latter, ladder, tomato. 4. The vowel of boat, dote, know, no, etc. is a pure long vowel, not a diphthong as in British English. 5. Where British English has four vowels, (i) a as in bat, (ii) ah as in dance, father, (iii) o as in hot, long, and (iv) aw as in law, Amer. English has only three, differently distributed, viz.: (i) a as in bat, dance, (ii) ah as in father, hot, and (iii) aw as in long, law. 6. The sound of you (spelt u, ew, etc.) after s, t, d, n, is replaced by the sound of oo, e.g. in resume, Tuesday, due, new, etc. 7. The sound of u as in up (also spelt o in come, etc.) sounds like the obscure sound of a as in aloft, china. 8. er is pronounced as in herd in words where it is like ar in hard in British English, e.g. in clerk, derby. 9. The vowels in the first syllables of (a) ferry, herald, merry, etc., (b) fairy, hairy, Mary, etc., and (c) carry, Harry, marry, etc. (i.e. when r follows) are not distinguished from one another by most General American speakers. 10. In words of four syllables and over, in which the main stress falls on the first or second syllable, there is a strong secondary stress on the last syllable but one, the vowel of which is fully enunciated, not reduced as in British English, e.g. c¢ntempl…tive, t‚mpor…ry, t‚rrit•ry. (2) 'A form of U.S. speech without marked dialectal or regional characteristics' (A Supplement to the OED, Volume 1). 2.5 -arily =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

In a few adverbs that end in the sequence -arily there is a tendency to place the stress on the a rather than the first syllable of the word. The reason lies in the stress pattern of four- and five-syllable words. Adjectives of four syllables ending in -ary which are stressed on the first syllable are generally pronounced with elision of one of the middle syllables, e.g. military, necessary, temporary pronounced milit'ry, necess'ry, temp'rary. This trisyllabic pattern is much easier to pronounce.

The addition of the adverbial suffix -ly converts the word back into an unwieldly tetrasyllable that cannot be further elided: milit(a)rily, necess(a)rily, temp(o)rarily. Hence the use of these adverbs is sometimes avoided by saying in a military fashion, in a solitary way, etc. A number of these adverbs are, however, in common use, e.g. arbitrarily ordinarily

necessarily momentarily

temporarily voluntarily

Because of the awkwardness of placing the stress on the first syllable, colloquial speech has adopted a pronunciation with stress on the third syllable, with the a sounding like e in verily. This is probably a borrowing from Amer. English, in which this pronunciation problem does not arise. In adjectives like necessary the ending -ary quite regularly receives a secondary stress (see "American pronunciation" in topic 2.4 above), which can then be converted into a main stress when -ly is added. This pronunciation is much easier and more natural in rapid, colloquial speech, in which it would be pedantic to censure it. ° In formal and careful speech, the standard pronunciation of arbitrarily, momentarily, necessarily, ordinarily, temporarily, and voluntarily is with stress on the first syllable. The case of the word primarily is somewhat different. It contains only four syllables, which, with stress on the first, can be reduced by elision of the second syllable to the easily pronounced spoken form prim'rily. ° There is therefore no need to pronounce the word with stress on the second syllable, pri-merr-ily, or even worse, pri-marr-ily. These are widely unacceptable. 2.6 -ed =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. In the following adjectives the ending -ed is pronounced as a separate syllable: accursed cragged deuced

naked rugged sacred

wicked wretched

Note deuced can also be pronounced as one syllable. 2. The following words represent two different spoken forms each with meanings that differ according to whether -ed is pronounced as a separate syllable or not. In most cases the former pronunciation indicates an adjective (as with the list under 1 above), the latter the past tense and past participle of a verb, but some are more complicated.

aged

(a) -ed as separate syllable = very old (he is very

(b) -ed pronounced 'd = having the age of (one,

aged, an aged man) etc.) (he is aged three, a boy aged three); past of to age (he has aged greatly) beloved

used before noun (beloved used as predicate (he was brethren); = beloved person beloved by all) (my beloved is mine)

blessed

= fortunate, holy, sacred part of to bless; sometimes (blessed are the meek, the also in senses listed in blessed saints); = blessed left-hand column person (Isles of the blessed)

crabbed

= cross-grained, hard to follow, etc.

past of to crab

crooked

= not straight, dishonest = having a transverse handle (crooked stick); past of to crook

cursed

before noun = damnable

dogged

= tenacious

jagged

= indented

learned

= erudite

past of to curse

past of to dog past of to jag past of to learn (usually learnt)

ragged

= rough, torn, etc.

past of to rag

2.7 -edly, -edness =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

When the further suffixes -ly (forming adverbs ) and -ness (forming nouns) are added to adjectives ending in the suffix -ed, an uncertainty arises about whether to pronounce this -ed- as a separate syllable or not. The adjectives to which these suffixes are added can be divided into three kinds. 1. Those in which -ed is already a separate syllable ( a) because it is preceded by d or t or (b) because the adjective is one of those discussed in the entry for -ed above; e.g. belated, decided, excited levelheaded, wicked. When both -ly and -ness are added, -ed- remains a separate syllable, e.g. (i) belatedly, decidedly, excitedly, wickedly; (ii) belatedness, levelheadedness, wickedness. 2. Those in which the syllable preceding -ed is unstressed, i.e. if -(e)d is removed the word ends in an unstressed syllable; e.g. badtempered, embarrassed, hurried, self-centred. When both -ly and -ness are added, -ed- remains non-syllabic (i.e. it sounds like 'd), e.g. (i) abandonedly bad-temperedly biasedly dignifiedy

frenziedly old-fashionedly good-humouredly self-centredly hurriedly shamefacedly ill-naturedly worriedly

embarrassedly (ii) bad-tempered-ness selfcentredness (= -center'dness) hurriedness shamefacedness 3. Those in which the syllable preceding -ed is stressed, i.e. if -(e)d is removed the word ends in a stressed syllable, or is a monosyllable, e.g. assured, fixed. ° (i) When -ly is added -ed becomes an extra syllable, e.g. advisedly allegedly amusedly assuredly avowedly constrainedly

declaredly deservedly designedly displeasedly fixedly markedly

professedly resignedly surprisedly undisguisedly unfeignedly unreservedly

Exceptions: There are a few definite exceptions to this rule, e.g. subduedly, tiredly (ed is not a separate syllable). There are also several words in which variation is found, e.g. confessedly, depravedly, depressedly (three or four syllables according to OED); inspiredly (four syllables in OED, but now probably three). ° Note that some adverbs formed on adjectives in -ed sound awkward and ugly whether -ed- is pronounced as a separate syllable or not. Because of this, some authorities (e.g. MEU) discourage the formation of words like boredly, charmedly, discouragedly, experiencedly. (ii) When -ness is added, there is greater variation. The older usage seems to have been to make -ed- an extra syllable. In OED the following are so marked: absorbedness assuredness confirmedness

estrangedness exposedness fixedness

forcedness markedness surprisedness

The following have ed or 'd as alternative pronunciation: ashamedness detachedness

pleasedness preparedness

But 'd is the only pronunciation in blurredness, subduedness. However, many other words are not specially marked, and it seems likely that it has become increasingly rare for -ed- to be separately sounded. Ü It is acceptable not to make -ed- a separate syllable in words of this type. 2.8 -ein(e) =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The ending -ein(e) (originally disyllabic) is now usually pronounced like -ene in polythene in

caffeine

codeine

casein

protein

2.9 -eity =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The traditional pronunciation of e in this termination is as in me, e.g. in contemporaneity heterogeneity corporeity hom*ogeneity deity simultaneity

spontaneity velleity

Among younger speakers there is a marked tendency to substitute the sound of e in caf‚, suede. The reasons for this are probably: 1. The difficulty of making the sounds of e (as in me) and i distinct when they come together. Cf. the words rabies, species, protein, etc. in which e and i were originally separate syllables but have now fused. Because of this difficulty, many users of the traditional pronunciation of e actually make the first two syllables of deity sound like deer, and so with the other words. 2. The influence of the reformed pronunciation of Latin in which e has the sound of e in caf‚. The same variation is found in the sequence -ei- in the words deism, deist, reify, reification (but not theism, theist). ° The pronunciation of e as in me is the only generally acceptable one in all these words. 2.10 -eur =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

This termination, occurring in words originally taken from French, in which it is the agent suffix, normally carries the stress and sounds like er in deter, refer, e.g. in: agent provocateur entrepreneur restaurateur coiffeur litterateur sabreur colporteur masseur seigneur connoisseur poseur tirailleur (con-a-ser) raconteur voyeur Stress is on the first syllable usually in amateur (and amateurish: am-a-ter-ish) chauffeur saboteur Stress can be on either the first or the third syllable in secateurs. Feminine nouns can be formed from some of these by the substitution of -se for -r: the resulting termination is pronounced like urze in furze, e.g. coiffeuse, masseuse, saboteuse. liqueur is pronounced Ii-cure (Amer. li-cur).

2.11 g =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

A. In certain less familiar words and words taken from foreign languages, especially Greek, there is often uncertainty as to whether g preceding e, i, and (especially) y is pronounced hard as in get or soft as in gem. 1. The prefix gyn(o)- meaning 'woman' now always has a hard g. 2. The element -gyn- with the same meaning, occurring inside the word, usually has a soft g, as in androgynous, misogynist. 3. The elements gyr- (from a root meaning ' ring') and -gitis (in names of diseases) always have a soft g, as in gyrate gyration gyre (poetic, = gyrate, gyration)

gyro (-scope, compass, etc.) laryngitis meningitis

4. The following, among many other more familiar words, have a hard g: gibbous gig (all senses)

gill (fish's organ) gingham

5. The following have a soft g: gibber giro gypsum gibe (payment system) gyrfalcon gill (measure) gybe gyve gillyflower gypsophila panegyric 6. There is variation in: demagogic, -y, gibberish, hegemony, pedagogic, -y. ° g should be hard in analogous. B. See "-age" in topic 2.3. 2.12 -gm =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

g is silent in the sequence gm at the end of the word: apophthegm diaphragm

paradigm phlegm

But g is pronounced when this sequence comes between vowels: apophthegmatic enigma

paradigmatic phlegmatic

2.13 h =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. Initial h is silent in heir, honest, honour, hour, and their derivatives; also in honorarium. It is sounded in habitu‚. 2. Initial h used commonly to be silent if the first syllable was unstressed, as in habitual, hereditary, historic, hotel. This pronunciation is now old-fashioned. (see "a or an" in topic 1.8.) 2.14 -ies =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The ending -ies is usually pronounced as one syllable (like ies in diesel) in: caries congeries facies

rabies scabies

series species

° The reduction of this ending to a sound like the ending of the plural words armies, babies, etc., is best avoided. 2.15 -ile =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The ending -ile is normally pronounced like isle, e.g. in docile domicile

fertile missile

sterile virile

° The usual Amer. pronunciation in most words of this kind is with the sound of il in daffodil or pencil. The pronunciation is like eel in: automobile imbecile

-mobile (suffix)

-ile forms two syllables in campanile (rhyming with Ely), cantabile (pronounced can-tah-bi-ly), and sal volatile (rhyming with philately). 2.16 ng =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

There is a distinction in Standard English between ng representing a single sound (which is represented by n alone before c, k, q, and x, as in zinc, ink, tranquil, and lynx) and ng representing a compound consisting of this sound followed by the sound of hard g. 1. The single sound is the only one to occur at the end of a word, e.g. in bring

furlong

song

writing

2. The single sound also occurs in the middle of words, but usually in

words that are a compound of a word ending in -ng (as in 1 above) + a suffix, e.g. bringer bringing hanged

kingly longish singable

stringy wrongful

3. The compound sound, ng + g, is otherwise normal in the middle of words, e.g. anger

language

hungry

singly

And exceptionally, according to rule 2, in diphthongize, longer, -est, prolongation, stronger, -est, younger, -est. ° 4. It is non-standard: a. To use -in for -ing (suffix), i.e. to pronounce bringing, writing as bringin, writin. b. To use n for ng in length, strength. (The pronunciation lenkth, strenkth is acceptable.) c. To use nk for ng in anything, everything, nothing, something. d. To use the compound sound ng + g in all cases of ng, i.e. in words covered by rules 1 and 2 as well as 3. This pronunciation is, however, normal in certain regional forms of English. 2.17 o =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. In many words the sound normally represented in English by u as in butter, sun is written instead with o, e.g. above, come, front. There are a few words in which there is variation in pronunciation between the above sound (as in come, etc.) and the more usual sound of o (as in body, lot, etc.) The earlier pronunciation of most of these was with the u-sound; the o-sound was introduced under the influence of the spelling. a. More usually with the u-sound: accomplice accomplish

frontier mongrel

pommel

b. More usually with the o-sound: combat hovel conduit hover dromedary

pomegranate sojourn

c. Still variable (either is acceptable): comrade

constable

2. Before ff, ft, ss, st, and th, in certain words, there was formerly a variety of RP in which o was pronounced like aw in law or oa in broad,

so that off often, cross, lost, and cloth sounded like orf, orphan, etc. ° This pronunciation is now non-standard. 3. Before double ll, o has the long sound (as in pole) in some words, and the short sound (as in Polly) in others. a. With the long sound: boll droll knoll poll

roll toll scroll troll stroll wholly swollen

b. With the short sound: doll, loll, and most words in which another syllable follows, e.g. collar, holly, etc. 4. Before lt, o is pronounced long, as in pole, e.g. bolt, colt, molten, revolt. ° The substitution of short o, as in doll, in these words is non-standard. 5. Before lv, o is pronounced short, as in doll, e.g. absolve devolve dissolve

evolve involve resolve

revolve revolver solve

° The substitution of long o, as in pole, in these words is non-standard. 2.18 ough =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

Difficult though this spelling is for foreign learners, most words in which it occurs are familiar to the ordinary English speaker. Pronunciation difficulties may arise, however, with the following words: brougham (a kind of carriage) broo-am or broom chough (bird) chuff clough (ravine) cluff hough (animal's joint), same as, and sounds like, hock slough (bog) rhymes with plough slough (snake's skin) sluff sough (sound) suff ( can also rhyme with plough) 2.19 phth =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

This sequence should sound like fth (in fifth, twelfth), e.g. in diphtheria, dipthong, monophthong, naphtha, ophthalmic. ° It is non-standard to pronounce these as if written dip-theria, etc.

Initially, as in the words phthisical, phthisis, the ph can be silent; it is also usually silent in apophthegm. 2.20 pn-, ps-, pt=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

These sequences occur at the beginning of many words taken from Greek. In all of them it is normal not to pronounce the initial p-. The exception is psi representing the name of a Greek letter, used, e.g., as a symbol. 2.21 r =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. When r is the last letter of a word (always following a vowel, or another r) or precedes 'silent' final e (where it may follow a consonant, e.g. in acre which really = aker), it is normally silent in RP, e.g. in aware err far

four here kilometre

pure runner

But when another word, beginning with a vowel sound, follows in the same sentence, it is normal to pronounce the final r, e.g. in aware of it four hours pure air to err is human here it is runner -up far away a kilometre of track This is called the 'linking r'. ° It is standard to use linking r and unnatural to try to avoid it. 2. A closely connected feature of the spoken language is what is called 'intrusive r'. a. The commonest occurrence of this is when a word ending with the obscure sound of a, as china, comma, Jonah, loofah, etc. is immediately followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound. An intrusive r is added to the end of the first word as if it were spelt with -er so as to ease the passage from one word to the next. Typical examples are: the area-r of the island an umbrella-r the pasta-r is cooked organization sonata-r in E flat a villa-r in Italy Here the sound spelt -a at the end of area, pasta, etc., which sounds the same as -er, -re at the end of runner, kilometre, is

treated as if it were spelt with an r following. b. In the same way, some speakers unconsciously equate (i) the spelling a or ah in grandma, Shah with the identical-sounding ar in far, (ii) the spelling aw in law, draw with the similar our in four or ore in bore, tore, and (iii) the spelling eu in milieu, cordon bleu with the similar er(r) in err, prefer. Thus, just as linking r is used with far, four, bore, tore, err, and prefer, such speakers introduce an intrusive r in, e.g. is grandma-r at home? a milieu-r in The Shah-r of Iran which... draw-r a picture a cordon bleu-r law-r and order in the kitchen

c. Intrusive r is often introduced before inflexional endings, e.g. The boys are keen on scubering (i.e. scubaing) (Berkely Mather) oohing and ah-r-ing draw-r-ing room and even within the word withdraw-r-al. d. Intrusive r has been noted since the end of the eighteenth century. In the mid-nineteenth century it was regarded as unpardonable in an educated person, but acknowledged to occur widely even among the cultivated. Its use after obscure a (as described under 2a above), where it greatly aids the flow of the sentence and is relatively unobtrusive, is acceptable in rapid, informal speech. The avoidance of intrusive r here by the insertion of a hiatus or a catch in the breath would sound affected and pedantic.

° The use of intrusive r after the sounds of ah, aw, and eu (described under 2b ) is very widely unacceptable and should be avoided if possible. Its use before inflexional endings (2c above) is illiterate or jocular. ° In formal speech, the use of intrusive r in any context conveys an impression of unsuitable carelessness and should not be used at all. 3. There is a tendency in certain words to drop r if it is closely followed (or in a few cases, preceded) by another r at the beginning of an unstressed syllable, e.g. in deteriorate mispronounced deteriate February mispronounced Febuary honorary mispronounced honary (prefer hon'rary) itinerary mispronounced itinery library mispronounced lib'ry secretary mispronounced seketry or seketerry temporary mispronounced tempary (prefer temp'rary) ° This pronunciation should be avoided, especially in formal speech.

2.22 reduced forms =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

In rapid speech, many of the shorter words whose function is essentially grammatical rather than lexical, being lightly stressed, tend to be reduced either by the obscuring of their vowels or the loss of a consonant or both. They may even be attached to one another or to more prominent words. similarly, some words such as pronouns and auxiliary verbs are in rapid speech omitted altogether, while longer words of frequent occurrence are shortened by the elision of unstressed syllables. Typical examples are: gunna, wanna = going to, want to kinda, sorta = kind of, sort of gimme, lemme = give me, let me 'snot = it's not innit, wannit = isn't it, wasn't it doncha dunno = don't you, I don't know what's he say, where d'you find it, we done it, what you want it for? 'spect or I'xpect = I expect (I) spose = I suppose cos, course, on'y, praps, probly = because, of course, only, perhaps, probably ° Most of these reduced forms (with the possible exception of innit, wannit) are natural in informal RP, but severely mar the quality and clarity of careful and prepared discourse, where they should be avoided. 2.23 s, sh, z and zh =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

In certain kinds of word, where the spelling is ci, si, or ti, or where it is s before long u, there is variation between two or more of the four sounds which may be phonetically represented as: s as in sun sh as in ship z as in zone

zh representing the sound of s in leisure or g in r‚gime

1. There is variation between s and sh in words such as: appreciate appreciation associate

association negotiate

negotiation sociology

This variation does not occur in all words with a similar structure: only s is used in glaciation, pronunciation (=-see-ay-shon), and only sh in partiality (par-shee-al-ity). Note that there can be a variant having the sound of s only with words in which the following i constitutes a separate syllable; hence only sh occurs in initial, racial, sociable, spatial, special, etc. It is possible that speakers avoid using sh in words that end in -tion, which also contains the shsound, so as to prevent the occurrence of this sound in adjacent syllables, e.g. in appreciation = appreshi-ashon. 2. There is variation between s and sh in sensual, sexual, issue, tissue,

and between z and zh in casual, casuist, visual. 3. There is variation between sh and rh in aversion, equation, immersion, transition, version. Ü Either variant is acceptable in each of these kinds of word, although in all of them sh is the traditional pronunciation. 4. In the names of some countries and regions ending in -sia, and in the adjectives derived from them, there is variation between sh and zh, and in some cases z and s as well. So: Asian = A-shan or A-zhan Asiatic = A-shi-at-ic or A-zhi-at-ic or A-zi-at-ic or A-si-at-ic Friesian = Free-zi-an or Free-zhan Indonesian = Indo-nee-shan or -zhan or -zi-an or -si-an Persian = Per-shan or Per-zhan Polynesian (varies like Indonesian) Rhodesian = Ro-dee-shan or -zhan or -zi-an or -si-an ° In all except Friesian the pronunciation with sh is traditional in RP and therefore the most widely acceptable. The pronunciation with zh is also generally acceptable. 2.24 stress =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. The position of the stress accent is the key to the pronunciation of many English polysyllabic words. If it is known on which syllable the stress falls, it is very often possible to deduce the pronunciation of the vowels. This is largely because the vowels of unstressed syllables in English are subject to reduction in length, obscuration of quality, and, quite often, complete elision. Compare the sound of the vowel in the stressed syllable in the words on the left with that of the vowel in the same syllable, unstressed, in the related words on the right: a: hum nity mon rchic practic lity secret rial e: pres‚nt (verb) prot‚st myst‚rious i: sat¡rical comb¡ne anx¡ety o: ec¢nomy opp¢se hist¢ric u: lux£rious ind£strial

h£man m¢narch pr ctically(ic'ly) s‚cretary (-try) pr‚sent (noun) protest tion mystery (=myst'ry) s tirist combin tion nxious (=anksh'ous) econ¢mic ¢pposite h¡story (=hist'ry) l£xury ¡ndustry

Because the position of the stress has such an important effect on the phonetic shape of the word, it is not surprising that many of the most hotly disputed questions of pronunciation centre on the placing of the stress. For example, in controversy, stress on the first syllable causes the four vowels to sound like those of collar turning, while

stress on the second causes them to sound like those of an opposite: two quite different sequences of vowels. 2. It is impossible to formulate rules accounting for the position of the stress in every English word, whether by reference to the spelling or on the basis of grammatical function. If it were, most of the controversies about pronunciation could be cleared up overnight. Instead, three very general observations can be made. a. Within very broad limits, the stress can fall on any syllable. These limits are roughly defined by the statement that more than three unstressed syllables cannot easily be uttered in sequence. Hence, for example, five-syllable words with stress on the first or last syllable are rare. Very often in polysyllabic words at least one syllable besides the main stressed syllable bears a medium or secondary stress, e.g. c terp•llar, c•ntrovŠrtib¡lity. b. Although there is such fluidity in the occurrence of stress, some patterns of stress are clearly associated with some patterns of spelling or with grammatical function (or, especially, with variation of grammatical function in a single word). For example, almost all words ending in the suffixes -ic and -ical are stressed on the syllable immediately preceding the suffix. There is only a handful of exceptions: Arabic, arithmetic (noun), arsenic, catholic, choleric, heretic, lunatic, politic(s), rhetoric. c. If the recent and current changes and variations in stress in a large number of words are categorized, a small number of general tendencies can be discerned. Most of these can be ascribed to the influence exerted by the existing fixed stress patterns over other words (many of which may conform to other existing patterns of stress). It will be the purpose of the remaining part of this entry to describe some of these tendencies and to relate them to the existing canons of acceptibility. 3. Two-syllable words While there is no general rule that says which syllable the stress will fall on, there is a fixed pattern to which quite a large number of words conform, by which nouns and adjectives are stressed on the first syllable, and verbs on the second. A large number of words beginning with a (Latin) prefix have stress on the first syllable if they are nouns or adjectives, but on the second if they are verbs, e.g. accent compound conflict

import present suspect

transfer transport

The same distinction is made in some words ending in -ment, e.g. ferment fragment

segment torment

And words ending in -ate with stress on the first syllable are usually nouns, while those with stress on the second are mainly verbs, e.g.

nouns: climate curate dictate mandate

verbs: create dictate frustrate vacate

This pattern has recently exercised an influence over several other words not originally conforming to it. The words ally combine

defect intern

rampage

were all originally stressed on the second syllable; as verbs, they still are, but as nouns, they are all usually stressed on the first. Exactly the same tendency has affected dispute

research

recess

romance

but in these words, the pronunciation of the noun with stress on the first syllable is rejected in good usage. The following nouns and adjectives (not corresponding to identically spelt verbs) show the same transference of stress: adept, adult, chagrin, supine. In the verbs combat, contact, harass, and traverse, originally stressed on the first syllable, a tendency towards stress on the second syllable is discernible, but the new stress has been accepted only in the word traverse. 4. Three-syllable words Of the three possible stress patterns in three-syllable words, that with stress on the first syllable is the strongest and best-established, exercising an influence over words conforming to the other two patterns. a. Words with stress on the final syllable are relatively rare. A number of them have been attracted to the dominant pattern; in some this pattern (stress on the first syllable) is acceptable in RP, e.g. artisan, commandant, confidant, partisan, promenade; in others it is not, e.g. cigarette, magazine. b. Many words originally having stress on the second syllable now normally or commonly have stress on the first, e.g. abdomen acumen albumen aspirant communal composite

decorous recondite obdurate remonstrate precedence secretive precedent sonorous (noun) subsidence quandary vagary

Other words are also affected by this tendency, but the pronunciation with stress on the first syllable has not been accepted as standard, e.g. in Byzantine clandestine

contribute distribute

Note: This tendency to move the stress back from the second to

the first syllable of three-syllable words has been observed for at least a century. A case that typically illustrates it is the word sonorous. In 1884 W. W. Skeat, in his Etymological Dictionary of the English Language (edn. 2), wrote: 'Properly son¢rous; it will probably, sooner or later, become s¢norous.' The first dictionary to recognize the change was Webster's New International of 1909, which adds the newer pronunciation with the comment 'now often, esp. in British usage'. Fifty years after Skeat, G. B. Shaw wrote to The Times (2 Jan. 1934): 'An announcer who pronounced decadent and sonorous as dekkadent and sonnerus would provoke Providence to strike him dumb'-- testifying both to the prevalence of the new pronunciation and to the opposition it aroused. In 1956 Compton Mackenzie, in an Oxford Union Debate, protested against the pronunciation of quandary, sonorous, and decorous with stress on the first syllable (B. Foster, The Changing English Language, 1968, p. 243). Foster (ibid.), however, records his surprise in about 1935 at hearing a schoolmaster use the older pronunciation of sonorous. The newer pronunciation was first mentioned in the Concise Oxford Dictionary in 1964; the two pronunciations are both heard, but the newer one probably now prevails. c. There is a tendency in a few words to move the stress from the first to the second syllable. It is generally resisted in standard usage, e.g. in combatant deficit

exquisite stigmata

urinal

all of which have stress on the first syllable. But it has prevailed in aggrandize, chastisem*nt, conversant, doctrinal, environs, pariah. 5. Four-syllable words In a very large group of four-syllable words there is a clash between two opposing tendencies. One is the impulse to place the stress on the first syllable; the other is the influence of antepenultimate stress which is so prevalent in three-syllable words. Broadly speaking, it has been traditional in RP to favour stress on the first syllable, so that the shift to the second syllable has been strongly resisted in: applicable aristocrat capitalist controversy contumacy

demonstrable formidable hospitable illustrative

intricacy kilometre lamentable remediless

In many words the two tendencies can be reconciled by the elision of one of the two middle unstressed syllables: adversary comparable migratory momentary

necessary participle preferable primarily

promissory referable voluntary

However, many words traditionally stressed on the first syllable have been, or are being, adapted to the antepenultimate stress pattern,

e.g. centenary despicable disputable explicable

hegemony metallurgy miscellany

nomenclature pejorative peremptory

Because antepenultimate stress has been accepted in most of these words, it is difficult to reject it in the words in the first list simply on the ground of tradition. Analogy is the obvious argument in some cases, i.e. the analogy of capital, demonstrate, illustrate, intricate, kilocycle (or centimetre), and remedy for the words related to them in the list, but this cannot be used with the remaining words. 6. Five-syllable words Five-syllable words originally stressed on the first syllable have been affected by the difficulty of uttering more than three unstressed syllables in sequence (see 2a above). The stress has been shifted to the second syllable in laboratory, obligatory, whereas in veterinary the fourth syllable is elided, and usually the second as well. For arbitrarily, momentarily, etc., see "-arily" in topic 2.5. 2.25 t =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. In rapid speech, t is often dropped from the sequence cts, so that acts, ducts, pacts sound like axe, ducks, packs. ° This should be avoided in careful speech. 2. The sounding of t in often is a spelling pronunciation: the traditional form in RP rhymes with soften. 2.26 th =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in -th after a vowel sound (or vowel + r) form the plural by adding -s in the usual way, but the resulting sequence ths is pronounced in two different ways. In some words It voiceless as in myths, in others voiced as in mouths. a. The following are like myth: berth birth breath death faith fourth

girth growth hearth heath moth

sleuth sloth (animal) smith wraith

b. The following are like mouth: bath oath path

sheath swath truth

wreath youth

cloth, lath vary, but are now commonly like myth. 2. Note that final th is like th in bathe, father in: bequeath betroth

booth mouth (verb)

2.27 u =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The sound of long u, as in cube, cubic, cue, use is also spelt eu, ew, and ui, as in feud, few, pursuit. It is properly a compound of two sounds, the semi-vowel y followed by the long vowel elsewhere written oo. Hence the word you (=y + oo) sounds like the name of the letter U, ewe, and yew. When this compound sound follows certain consonants the y is lost, leaving only the oo-sound. 1. Where it follows ch,j, r, and the sound of sh, the y element was lost in the mid-eighteenth century. So brewed, chews, chute, Jules, rude, sound like brood, choose, shoot, joules, rood. The y element was also lost at about the same time or a little later where it follows an l preceded by another consonant; so blew, clue, glue, etc. sound as if they were spelt bloo, cloo, gloo, etc. 2. Where this compound sound follows an l not preceded by another consonant, loss of the y-element is now very common in a syllable that bears the main or secondary stress. COD, for instance, gives only the oo pronunciation in many words, e.g. Lewis, Lucifer, lucrative, lucre, etc., and either pronunciation for many others, e.g. lubricate, Lucan, lucid, ludicrous, etc. It is equally common in internal stressed syllables; in COD the words allude, alluvial, collusion, voluminous, etc. are given both pronunciations. So also in a syllable which bears a secondary stress: absolute, interlude. Ü In all syllables of these kinds, the oo-sound is probably the predominant type, but either is acceptable. ° In unstressed syllables, however, it is not usual for the y-element to be lost. The yoo-sound is the only one possible in, e.g. curlew deluge prelude

purlieu soluble valuable

value volume

Contrast solute (= sol-yoot) with salute (= sa-loot). 3. After s, there is again variation between the compound sound and the oo-sound. The latter has now a very strong foothold. Very few people, if any, pronounce Susan and Sue with a yoo, and most people pronounce super (the word and the prefix) with oo. On the other hand, most

people probably use yoo in pseudo- and in internal syllables, as in assume, presume, pursue. Common words such as sewage, sewer, suet, suicide, sue, and suit show wide variation: some people pronounce the first four (in which another vowel follows ew or u) with oo, but the last two with yoo. In an unstressed syllable, the y- sound is kept, as with l in 2 above: capsule chasuble

consular hirsute

insulate peninsula

Ü Apart from in Susan, Sue, and super, and the words in which the vowel occurs in an unstressed syllable, either pronunciation is acceptable, although yoo is the traditional one. 4. After d, n, t, and th, the loss of the y-sound is non-standard, e.g. in due, new, tune, enthusiasm. Note: In Amer. English loss of the y-sound is normal after these consonants and l and s. ° The tendency to make t and d preceding this sound in stressed syllables sound like ch and j, e.g. Tuesday, duel as if Choosday, jewel, should be avoided in careful speech. In unstressed syllables (e.g. in picture, procedure) it is normal. 2.28 ul =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

After b, f, and p, the sequence ul sounds like ool in wool in some words, e.g. in bull, full, pull, and like ull in hull in others, e.g. in bulk, fulminate, pulp. In a few words there is uncertainty about the sound of u, or actual variation. (a) Normally with u as in hull: Bulgarian ebullient effulgent

fulminate pulmonary pullulate pulverize

(b) Normally with u as in bull: bulwark

fulsome

fulmar

fulvous

In Standard English the stressed vowel of furry and occurring is like that of stirring, not that of hurry and occurrence. ° The identity of the two sounds is normal in Amer. English. 2.30 wh =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

In some regions wh is distinguished from w by being preceded or accompanied by an h-sound. Ü This pronunciation is not standard in RP, but is acceptable to most RP-speakers. 2.31 B. Preferred pronunciations =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-

The entries in this list are of three kinds. Some of the words in it have only one current pronunciation, which cannot, however, he deduced with certainty from the written form. These are mainly words that are encountered in writing and are not part of the average person's spoken vocabulary. Another class of words included here have a single, universally accepted pronunciation, which, in rapid or careless speech, undergoes a significant slurring or reduction. These reduced forms are noted, with a warning to use the fully enunciated form in careful speech so as to avoid giving an impression of sloppiness or casualness. Much the largest group are words for which two or more different pronunciations exist. Both (or all) are given, with notes giving a rough guide to the currency and acceptability of each. The approach adopted here is fairly flexible, allowing for the inevitable subjectivity of judgements about pronunciation and the fact that there is variation and inconsistency even in the speech of an individual person. Where the American pronunciation is significantly different from the British (disregarding the differences that are constant, such as the American pronunciation of r where it is silent in British speech), a note of it has been added, usually in brackets at the end of the entry. In a few cases the American pronunciation stands alone after the recommended one, implying that the use of the American form is incorrect in British speech. It will be found that in many cases the American pronunciation coincides with an older British one that is now being ousted. It is hoped that this will dispel the impression that all innovations are Americanisms, and give a clearer idea of the relationship between the two varieties of English pronunciation. The symbol ° is used to warn against forms especially to be avoided; Ü introduces most of the cases of peaceful coexistence of two variant pronunciations. abdomen stress on 1st syllable in general use; on 2nd in the speech of many members of the medical profession. accomplice, accomplish the older (and Amer.) pronunciation has 2nd syllable as in comma; but pronunciation as come is now predominant. acoustic 2nd syllable as coo, not cow. acumen

stress on 1st syllable.

adept, adult (adjective and noun): stress on 1st syllable.

adversary stress on 1st syllable. aficionado a-fiss-eon-ah-do. aggrandize stress on 2nd syllable. ague

2 syllables.

albumen stress on 1st syllable. ally

(noun): stress on 1st syllable; (verb) on 2nd syllable; allied preceding a noun is stressed on 1st syllable.

analogous g as in log; not a-na-lo-jus. Antarctic ° do not drop the first c. anti-

(prefix): rhymes with shanty, not, as often Amer., ant eye.

antiquary stress on 1st syllable. apache

(Indian): rhymes with patchy; (street ruffian) rhymes with cash.

apartheid 3rd syllable like hate. ° Not apart-ite or apart-hide. apophthegm a-po-them. apparatus 3rd syllable like rate; not appar-ah-tus. applicable stress on 1st syllable. apposite 3rd syllable like that of opposite. arbitrarily stress properly on 1st syllable, in informal speech on 3rd. Arctic

° do not drop the first c.

Argentine 3rd syllable as in turpentine. aristocrat stress on 1st syllable. ° Not (except Amer.) a-rist-ocrat. artisan stress originally on 3rd syllable; pronunciation with stress on 1st syllable is Amer., and now common in Britain. aspirant stress on 1st syllable. asthma ass-ma is the familiar pronunciation; to sound the th is didactic (Amer. az-ma). ate

rhymes with bet (Amer. with bate).

audacious au as in audience, not as in gaucho. auld lang syne 3rd word like sign, not zine. azure

the older pronunciation was with -zure like -sure in pleasure; now usually az-yoor.

banal

2nd syllable like that of canal or morale (Amer. rhymes with anal).

basalt bathos

1st a as in gas, 2nd as in salt; stress on either. a as in paper.

blackguard blagg-ard. bolero

(dance): stress on 2nd syllable; (jacket) stress on 1st.

booth

rhymes with smooth (Amer. with tooth).

bouquet first syllable as book, not as beau. Bourbon (dynasty): 1st syllable as that of bourgeois; (US whisky) 1st syllable as bur. breeches rhymes with pitches. brochure stress on 1st syllable. brusque should be Anglicized: broosk or brusk. bureau

stress on 1st syllable.

burgh

(in Scotland): sounds like borough.

Byzantine stress on 2nd syllable. cadaver 2nd syllable as in waver. cadaverous 2nd syllable like 1st of average. cadre

rhymes with harder.

caliph

rhymes with bailiff.

camellia rhymes with Amelia. canine Ü 1st syllable may be as can or cane (the latter probably prevails). canton (subdivision): 2nd syllable as 1st of tonic; (military, also in cantonment) 2nd syllable as that of cartoon. capitalist stress on 1st syllable.

carillon rhymes with trillion (Amer. carry-lon). caryatid stress on 2nd a. catacomb 3rd syllable, in the older pronunciation, as comb; now frequently rhyming with tomb. centenary sen-tee-nary (Amer. sen-te-nary). cento

c as in cent, not cello.

centrifugal, centripetal stress originally on 2nd syllable; but pronunciation with stress on 3rd syllable seems to be usual among younger speakers. certification stress on 1st and 4th syllables, not 2nd and 4th. cervical Ü stress either on 1st syllable (with last two syllables as in vertical) or on 2nd (rhyming with cycle): both pronunciations have been common for at least a century and a half (Amer. only the first pronunciation). chaff

rhymes with staff.

chagrin stress on 1st syllable; 2nd as grin (Amer. stress on 2nd syllable). chamois (antelope): sham-wah; (leather) shammy. chastisem*nt traditionally with stress on 1st syllable; now often on 2nd. chimera ch = k not sh chiropodist strictly ch = k, but pronunciation as sh is common. choleric 1st two syllables like collar. cigarette stress on 3rd syllable (Amer. on 1st). clandestine stress on 2nd syllable. clangour rhymes with anger. clientele kleeon-tell. clique coccyx

rhymes with leak, not lick. cc = ks.

colander 1st syllable as cull. combat

(verb), combatant, -ive: stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd).

combine (noun): stress on 1st syllable. commandant stress originally on 3rd syllable; now often on 1st. communal stress on 1st syllable. commune (noun): stress on 1st syllable. comparable stress on 1st syllable, not on 2nd. compensatory the older (and Amer.) pronunciation has stress on 2nd syllable, but stress on 3rd is now common. compilation 2nd syllable as pill. composite stress on 1st syllable; 3rd as that of opposite (Amer. stress on 2nd syllable). conch

originally = conk; now often with ch as in lunch.

conduit last three letters like those of circuit (Amer. con-doo-it). confidant(e) the older pronunciation has stress on last syllable, which rhymes with ant; stress on 1st syllable is now common. congener stress on 1st syllable; o as in con; g as in gin. congeries Ü con-jeer-eez or con-jeer-y-eez. congratulatory stress on 2nd syllable; pronunciation with stress on 4th syllable is also common. conjugal stress on 1st syllable. consuetude stress on 1st syllable; sue like swi in swift. consummate (adjective): stress on 2nd syllable; (verb) on 1st syllable, 3rd syllable as mate. contact (noun and verb): stress on 1st syllable. contemplative stress on 2nd syllable. contrarily (on the contrary): stress on 1st syllable; (perversely) stress on 2nd syllable. contribute stress on 2nd syllable. ° The former pronunciation with stress

on 1st syllable has survived in dialect and is frequently heard, but is not standard. controversy stress on 1st syllable. ° The pronunciation with stress on 2nd syllable seems to be increasingly common, but is strongly disapproved by many users of RP. contumacy stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd). contumely 3 syllables with stress on the 1st. conversant now usually stressed on 2nd syllable; formerly on 1st. courier ou as in could. courteous 1st syllable like curt. courtesan 1st syllable like court. courtesy 1st syllable like curt. covert

1st syllable like that of cover. ° Does not rhyme with overt.

culinary cul- now usually as in culprit; formerly as in peculiar. dais

originally one syllable; now only with two.

data

1st syllable as date. ° Does not rhyme with sonata.

decade defect

stress on 1st syllable. (noun): stress on 1st syllable is now usual.

deficit stress on 1st syllable. deify, deity e as in me. ° Pronunciation with e as in suede, fˆte is common among younger speakers, but is disapproved of by many users of RP. delirious 2nd syllable as 1st of lyrical, not Leary. demesne 2nd syllable sounds like main. demonstrable stress on 1st syllable. deprivation 1st two syllables like those of depreciation. derisive, derisory 2nd syllable like rice. despicable in formal speech, stress on 1st syllable; informally, especially for greater emphasis, on 2nd.

desuetude as for consuetude. desultory stress on 1st syllable. deteriorate ° do not drop 4th syllable, i.e. not deteri-ate. detour

dee-tour not day-tour (Amer. de-tour).

deus ex machina day-us ex mak-ina, not ma-shee-na. dilemma 1st syllable like dill. dinghy

ding-gy, not rhyming with stringy.

diphtheria, diphthong ph = f not p. disciplinary the older (and Amer.) pronunciation has stress on 1st syllable, but it is now usually on the 3rd (with i as in pin). disputable stress on 2nd syllable. dispute (noun): stress on 2nd syllable, not on 1st. dissect 1st syllable as Diss. ° Does not rhyme with bisect. distribute stress on 2nd syllable. doctrinal the older pronunciation has stress on 1st syllable, but it is now usually on the 2nd (with i as in mine). dolorous, dolour 1st syllable like doll (Amer. like dole). dour

rhymes with poor not power.

dubiety last 3 syllables like those of anxiety. ducat

1st syllable like duck.

dynast, dynastic, dynasty 1st syllable like din (Amer. like dine). ebullient u as in dull, not as in bull. economic Ü e as in extra or as in equal: both are current. Edwardian 2nd syllable as ward. e'er

(poetry, = ever): sounds like air.

efficacy stress on 1st syllable, not 2nd.

ego

1st syllable as that of eager.

egocentric, egoism, etc.: 1st syllable like egg (Amer. usually as ego). either

elixir

ei as in height or seize: both are widely current (Amer. only the second pronunciation). rhymes with mixer.

enclave en- as in end, a as in slave. entirety now usually entire-ety; formerly entire-ty. envelope en- as in end not on. environs rhymes with sirens. epos

e as in epic.

epoxy

stress on 2nd syllable.

equerry stress properly on 2nd syllable, but commonly on 1st. espionage now usually with -age as in camouflage. et cetera etsetera. ° Not eksetera. explicable stress originally on 1st syllable, but now usually on 2nd. exquisite stress on 1st syllable. extraordinary 1st a is silent. fakir

sounds like fake-ear.

falcon

a as in talk, not as in alcove.

fascia

rhymes with Alsatia.

fascism, fascist 1st syllable like that of fashion. February ° do not drop the 1st r: feb-roor-y, not feb-yoor-y or feb-wa-ry or feb-yoo-erry (Amer. feb-roo-erry). fetid, fetish e as in fetter. fifth

in careful speech, do not drop the 2nd f.

finance Ü stress on 1st syllable (only with i as in fine) or on 2nd (with i as in fin or fine). forbade 2nd syllable like bad.

formidable in careful speech, stress on 1st syllable; informally, on 2nd. forte

(one's strong point): originally (and Amer.) like fort, but now usually like the musical term forte.

foyer

foy-ay or fwah-yay (Amer. foy-er).

fracas

(singular): frack-ah, (plural) frack-ahz (Amer. frake-us).

fulminate u as in dull. fulsome u formerly as in dull, now always as in full. furore

3 syllables (Amer. furor with 2).

Gaelic

1st syllable as gale.

gala

1st a as in calm. ° The former pronunciation with a as in gale is still used in the North and US.

gallant (brave, etc.): stress on 1st syllable; (polite and attentive to ladies) stress on 1st or 2nd syllable. garage stress on 1st syllable, age as in camouflage (or rhyming with large). ° Pronunciation so as to rhyme with carriage is non-standard (Amer. ga-rahge). garrulity stress on 2nd syllable, which sounds like rule. garrulous stress on 1st syllable. gaseous 1st syllable like gas. genuine ine as in engine. genus

e as in genius; genera (plural) has e as in general.

gibber, gibberish now usually with g as in gin; g as in give was formerly frequent in the first word and normal in the second. glacial lst a as in glade. golf

o as in got. ° The pronunciation goff is old-fashioned.

gone

o as in on. ° The pronunciation gawn is non-standard.

government ° In careful speech, do not drop the 1st n (or the whole 2nd syllable). gratis

a properly as in grate; but grahtis and grattis are commonly heard.

greasy

Ü s may be as in cease or easy.

grievous ° does not rhyme with previous. gunwale gunn'l. half-past ° In careful speech, avoid saying hah past or hoff posst. harass(ment) stress on 1st syllable (Amer. often on 2nd). have

in rapid speech, the weakstressed infinitive have is reduced to 've and sounds like the weakly stressed form of the preposition of. When stress is restored to it, it should become have, not of, as in 'You couldn't 've done it', 'I could have' (not 'I could of').

hectare 2nd syllable like tar, not tare. hegemony stress on 2nd syllable, g as in get or (as also Amer.) as in gem. Hegira

stress on 1st syllable, which is like hedge.

heinous ei as in rein. hom*o-

(prefix = same): o as in from.

hom*oeopath 1st two syllables rhyme with Romeo. hom*ogeneous last three syllables sound like genius. honorarium h silent, a as in rare. hospitable stress properly on 1st syllable. hotel

h to be pronounced.

housewifery stress on 1st syllable, i as in whiff hovel, hover o as in hot. ° The former pronunciation with o as in love is now only Amer. idyll

i as in idiot; it may be like i in idea in idyllic (with stress on 2nd syllable) and usually is in idyllist (with stress on 1st syllable).

illustrative stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd). imbroglio g is silent; rhymes with folio. impious stress on 1st syllable; on 2nd in impiety.

importune stress on 3rd syllable or (with some speakers) on 2nd. inchoate stress on 1st syllable. indict

c is silent; rhymes with incite.

indisputable stress on 3rd syllable. inexplicable stress originally on 2nd syllable, but now usually on 3rd. infamous stress on 1st syllable. inherent 1st e as in here. intaglio g is silent, a as in pal or pass. integral stress on 1st syllable. intern

(verb): stress on 2nd syllable; (noun, Amer.) on 1st.

internecine stress on 3rd syllable, last two syllables like knee sign. interstice stress on 2nd syllable. intestinal stress on 2nd syllable; 3rd syllable like tin. intricacy stress on 1st syllable. invalid (sick person): stress on 1st syllable, 2nd as in lid or machine; (verb) stress on 1st or 3rd syllable, 2nd i as in machine; (not valid) stress on 2nd syllable. inveigle originally rhyming with beagle, but now commonly with Hegel. inventory like infantry with v instead of f. irrefragable stress on 2nd syllable. irrelevant ° not irrevalent, a blunder sometimes heard. irreparable stress on 2nd syllable. irrevocable stress on 2nd syllable. issue

ss as in mission; but pronunciation to rhyme with miss you is very common.

isthmus do not drop the th.

January jan-yoor-y (Amer. jan-yoo-erry). jejune

stress on 2nd syllable.

jewellery jewel-ry. ° Not jool-ery. joule

(unit): rhymes with fool.

jubilee stress on 1st syllable ° Not 3rd. jugular 1st syllable like jug: formerly as in conjugal. junta

pronounce as written. ° Hoonta, an attempt to reproduce the Spanish pronunciation, is chiefly Amer.

kilometre stress on 1st syllable, as with kilocycle, kilolitre. ° Not on 2nd syllable; the pattern is that of millimetre, centimetre (units), not that of speedometer, milometer, etc. (devices). knoll

o as in no.

laboratory stress on 2nd syllable. ° The former pronunciation, with stress on 1st syllable, is now chiefly used by Amer. speakers (with o as in Tory). lamentable stress on 1st syllable. languor as for clangour. lasso

stress on 2nd syllable, o as in do.

lather

rhymes with gather, not rather.

launch

rhymes with haunch, not branch.

leeward (in general use): lee-ward; (nautical) like lured. leisure rhymes with pleasure (Amer. with seizure). length levee

ng as in long. ° Not lenth. (reception, assembly): like levy; (Amer., embankment) may be stressed on 2nd syllable.

library in careful speech avoid dropping the 2nd syllable (li-bry). lichen

sounds like liken.

lieutenant 1st syllable like left; in Navy, like let (Amer. like loot). liquorice licker-iss. longevity ng as in lunge. longitude ng as in lunge. ° Not (latitude and) longtitude, an error

sometimes heard. long-lived originally rhyming with arrived, but now usually like past tense lived. lour

rhymes with hour.

lugubrious loo-goo-brious. machete ch as in attach; rhymes with Betty (or with some speakers, Katie). machination ch as in mechanical, not as in machine. machismo, macho ch as in attach, not as in mechanical. magazine stress on 3rd syllable (Amer. and Northern pronunciation has stress on 1st). maieutic 1st syllable like may. mandatory stress on 1st syllable. margarine g as in Margery. marital stress on 1st syllable. massage stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd). matrix

a as in mate; matrices (plural) the same, with stress on 1st syllable.

medicine two syllables (med-sin). ° The pronunciation with three syllables is normal in Scotland and the US, but disapproved of by many users of RP. mediocre 1st syllable like mead. metallurgy, -ist stress on 2nd syllable. ° The older pronunciation with stress on 1st syllable, becoming rare in Britain, is chiefly Amer. metamorphosis stress on 3rd syllable. metope

two syllables.

midwifery stress on 1st syllable, i as in whiff mien

sounds like mean.

migraine 1st syllable like me (Amer. like my). migratory stress on 1st syllable.

millenary stress on 2nd syllable, which is like Len or lean. miscellany stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 1st). mischievous stress on 1st syllable. ° Not rhyming with previous. misericord stress on 2nd syllable. mocha (coffee): originally (and Amer.) rhyming with coca, now often like mocker. momentary, -ily stress on 1st syllable. municipal stress on 2nd syllable. nadir

nay-dear.

na‹ve

nah-Eve or nigh-Eve.

na‹vety has 3 syllables. nascent a as in fascinate. necessarily in formal speech, has stress on 1st syllable, with reduction or elision of a; informally, especially in emphatic use, stressed on 3rd syllable (e.g. not necessarily!). neither as for either. nephew nicety niche

ph sounds like v (Amer. like f). has three syllables.

nitch has been the pronunciation for two or three centuries; neesh, now common, is remodelled on the French form.

nomenclature stress on 2nd syllable. The pronunciation with stress on 1st and 3rd syllables is now chiefly Amer. nonchalant stress on 1st syllable, ch as in machine. nuclear newk-lee-er. ° Not as if spelt nucular. nucleic stress on 2nd syllable, which has e as in equal. obdurate stress on 1st syllable. obeisance 2nd syllable like base. obligatory

stress on 2nd syllable. obscenity e as in scent. occurrence 2nd syllable like the 1st in current. o'er

(poetry, over): sounds like ore.

see have.

often

the t is silent, as in soften.

ominous 1st syllable as that of omelette. ophthalmic ph =f not p. opus

o as in open.

ormolu p

orm-o-loo with weak 2nd o as in Caroline.

(abbreviation for penny, pence): in formal context, say penny (after 1) or pence. ° 'Pee' is informal only.

pace

(with all due respect to): like pacey.

paella

pah-ell-a.

panegyric stress on 3rd syllable, g as in gin, y as in lyric. paprika stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd). pariah the older pronunciation has the stress on 1st syllable, rhyming with carrier; the pronunciation with stress on 2nd syllable, rhyming with Isaiah, is now common (and normal Amer.). participle stress on 1st syllable; 1st i may be dropped. particularly in careful speech, avoid dropping the 4th syllable (particuly). partisan as artisan. pasty

(pie): a now usually as in lass; the older sound, as in past, is sometimes used in Cornish pasty.

patent 1st syllable like pate. ° Some who use this pronunciation for the general sense, have 1st syllable like pat in Patent Office, letters patent. pathos

as for bathos.

patriarch 1st a as in paper. patriot(ic) a as in pat or paper.

patron, patroness a as in paper. patronage, patronize a as in pat. pejorative stress on 2nd syllable. peremptory stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 1st). perhaps in careful speech, two syllables with h, not r, sounded; informally praps. pharmacopoeia stress on oe; -poeia rhymes with idea. philharmonic 2nd h is silent. phthisis ph is silent. pianist stress on 1st i, ia as in Ian piano

(instrument): a as in man; (musical direction) a as in calm.

piazza

zz = ts.

pistachio a as in calm or man, ch as in machine. plaid, plait rhyme with lad, flat. plastic rhymes with fantastic. ° The pronunciation with a as in calm sounds affected to many people. pogrom originally with stress on the 2nd syllable (as in Russian); now usually on the 1st. pomegranate the older pronunciation was with 1st e silent, o as in come or from, and stress either on o or the 1st a; the pronunciation pom-gran-it is still used by some speakers, but pommy-gran-it is now usual. porpoise oise like ose in purpose. posthumous h is silent. pot-pourri stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 3rd), pot- like Poe. precedence originally with stress on 2nd syllable, now usually on 1st, which sounds like press.

precedent (adjective): stress on 2nd syllable; (noun) as for precedence. precedented as for precedence. preferable stress on 1st syllable. premise (verb): stress on 2nd syllable, rhyming with surmise. prestige stress on 2nd syllable, i and g as in r‚gime. prestigious rhymes with religious. prima facie pry-ma fay-shee. primarily stress on 1st syllable, with a reduced or elided. ° The pronunciation with stress on the 2nd syllable, used by some (but not all) Americans, is disapproved of by many users of RP. Primates (order of mammals) originally with 3 syllables, but now often with 2. primer (elementary school-book): i as in prime. ° The older pronunciation with i as in prim survives in Australia and New Zealand. privacy Üi as in privet or private; the former is probably commoner; the latter is the older and Amer. pronunciation. probably in careful speech, 3 syllables; informally often probbly. proboscis pro-boss-iss. process (noun): o as in probe. ° An older pronunciation with o as in profit is now only Amer. process (verb, to treat): like the noun; (to walk in procession) stress on 2nd syllable. promissory stress on 1st syllable. pronunciation 2nd syllable like nun. ° Not pro-noun-ciation. prosody 1st syllable like that of prospect. protean stress on 1st syllable. prot‚g‚ 1st syllable like that of protestant (Amer. like that of protest). proven

o as in prove.

proviso 2nd syllable as that of revise. puissance (show-jumping): pronounced with approximation to French, pui = pwi, a nasalized; (in poetry) may be pwiss-ance or pew-iss-ance, depending on scansion. pursuivant Percy-vant. pyramidal stress on 2nd syllable. quaff

rhymes with scoff

quagmire a originally as in wag, now usually as in quad. qualm

rhymes with calm; the older pronunciation, rhyming with shawm, is now rare.

quandary stress on 1st syllable; the older pronunciation, with stress on 2nd syllable, is rarely, if ever, heard. quasi

the vowels are like those in wayside.

quatercentenary kwatt-er-, not quarter-. questionnaire 1st two syllables like question. rabid

1st syllable like that of rabbit.

rabies

2nd syllable like bees, not like the 2nd syllable of babies.

rampage (verb): stress on 2nd syllable; (noun) on 1st syllable. rapport stress on 2nd syllable, which sounds like pore (Amer. like port). ratiocinate 1st two syllables like ratty, stress on 3rd. rationale ale as in morale. really recess

rhymes with ideally, clearly, not with freely. (noun and verb): stress on 2nd syllable.

recognize ° do not drop the g. recondite stress on 1st or 2nd syllable. The former is the commoner, the latter, the older, pronunciation. recuperate 2nd syllable like the 1st of Cupid. referable stress on 1st syllable. remediable, -al

stress on 2nd syllable, e as in medium. remonstrate stress on 1st syllable; the older pronunciation, with stress on 2nd syllable, is rare. Renaissance stress on 2nd syllable, ai as in plaice. renege the traditional pronunciation rhymes with league. ÜA pronunciation to rhyme with plague, for long dialectal, is now common. ° g is hard as in get, not as in allege. reportage age as in camouflage, but with stress. research (noun): stress on 2nd syllable (Amer. on 1st). respite stress on 1st syllable, 2nd like spite (Amer. like spit). restaurant pronunciation with final t silent and second a nasalized is preferred by many, but that with ant = ont is widespread. revanchism anch as in ranch. ribald

1st syllable like rib.

risible rhymes with visible. risqu‚

Ü rees-kay or riss-kay.

romance stress on 2nd syllable. ° Pronunciation with stress on 1st syllable, usually in sense 'love affair, love story', is non-standard (except when used jocularly). Romany

1st syllable as that of Romulus.

rotatory stress on 1st syllable. rowan

ow. often as in low, although in Scotland, whence the word comes, it is as in cow.

rowlock rhymes with Pollock. sacrilegious now always rhymes with religious. sahib

sah-ib.

salsify sal-si-fee. salve

salve

(noun, ointment; verb, soothe): properly rhymes with halve, but now usually with valve (Amer. with have). (save ship): rhymes with valve.

satiety as for dubiety.

Saudi

rhymes with rowdy, not bawdy.

scabies as for rabies. scabrous 1st syllable like that of scabious (Amer. like scab). scallop rhymes with wallop. scarify (make an incision): rhymes with clarify. ° Not to be confused with slang scarify (terrify) pronounced scare-ify. scenario sc as in scene, ario as in impresario (Amer. with a as in Mary). schedule sch as in Schubert (Amer. as in school). schism schist

properly, ch is silent (siz'm); but skiz'm is often heard. (rock): sch as in Schubert.

schizo- skitso. scilicet 1st syllable like that of silent. scone

rhymes with on.

second

(to support): stress on 1st syllable; (to transfer) on 2nd.

secretary sek-re-try. ° Not sek-e-try or sek-e-terry or (Amer.) sek-re-terry. secretive stress on 1st syllable. seise, seisin ei as in seize. seismic 1st syllable like size. seraglio g silent, a as in ask. sheik

sounds like shake (Amer. like chic).

simultaneous i as in simple (Amer. as in Simon). sinecure properly, i as in sign, but i as in sin is common. Sinhalese sin-hal-ese. Sioux

soo.

sisal

1st syllable like the 2nd of precise.

sixth

in careful speech, avoid the pronunciation sikth.

slalom

a as in spa.

slaver

(dribble): a as in have.

sleight sounds like slight. sloth slough

rhymes with both. (bog): rhymes with bough; (to cast a skin) with tough.

sobriquet 1st syllable like that of sober. sojourn 1st o as in sob (Amer. as in sober). solder

o as in sob (Amer. pronunciation is sodder or sawder).

solecism o as in sob. solenoid stress on 1st syllable, o as in sober or as in sob. sonorous stress on 1st syllable, 1st o as in sob. soporific 1st o now usually as in sob (formerly also as in sober). sough

(rushing sound): rhymes with tough.

sovereignty sov'renty. ° Not sov-rain-ity. Soviet o as in sober. The pronunciation with o as in sob is also very common. species ci as in precious. Not spee-seez. spinet

Ü may be stressed on either syllable.

spontaneity as for deify, deity. stalwart 1st syllable like stall. status

1st syllable like stay. ° Not statt-us.

stigmata stress on 1st syllable. ° Not with ata as in sonata. strafe

rhymes with staff.

stratosphere a as in Stratford. stratum, strata a of first syllable like 1st a of sonata. strength ng as in strong. ° Not strenth. suave, suavity a as 1st a in lava. subsidence stress originally on 2nd syllable with i as in side; pronunciation with stress on 1st syllable and i as in sit is

increasingly common. substantial 1st a as in ant, not aunt. substantive (in grammar): stress on 1st syllable; (having separate existence, permanent) on 2nd syllable. suffragan g as in get. supererogatory stress on 4th syllable. superficies super-fish-(i-)eez. supine

(adjective): stress on 1st syllable (Amer. on 2nd).

suppose ° in careful speech, avoid the elision of the u; informal l s'pose so, s'posing it happens? surety

now usually three syllables (sure-et-y); originally two (sure-ty).

surveillance ° do not drop the l; sur-vey-lance, not sur-vey-ance. suzerain u as in Susan. swath

a as in water; in plural, th as in paths.

syndrome two syllables (formerly three). taxidermist Ü stress on 1st or 3rd syllable. temporarily stress on 1st syllable (with weakening or dropping of o): temp-ra-rily. ° Not tempo-rar-ily. Tibetan 2nd syllable like bet, not beat. tirade

tie-raid.

tissue

as for issue.

tonne

sounds like ton. ° To avoid misunderstanding, metric can be prefixed; but in most spoken contexts the slight difference between the imperial and metric weights will not matter.

tortoise as for porpoise. tourniquet 3rd syllable like the 2nd of croquet (Amer. like kit). towards the form with two syllables is now the most common; some speakers use the pronunciation tords in all contexts, others

only in some. trachea stress on e (Amer. on 1st a, pronounced as in trade). trait

2nd t is silent (in Amer. pronunciation, it is sounded).

trajectory stress properly on 1st syllable; now often (and Amer.) on 2nd. transferable stress on 1st syllable is implied by the single r (see "doubling of final consonant" in topic 1.16; but the form transferrable was formerly common, and accounts for the common pronunciation with stress on 2nd syllable. transition Ü tran-sizh-on or tran-zish-on. transparent Ü last two syllables either like those of apparent or like parent. trauma, traumatic au as in cause (Amer. as in gaucho). traverse (noun): stress on 1st syllable; (verb) on 2nd syllable. (The original pronunciation of the verb exactly like the noun is still usual in Amer. English.) trefoil stress on 1st syllable, e as in even or as in ever. triumvir 1st two syllables like those of triumphant. troth

rhymes with both (Amer. with cloth).

trow

rhymes with know.

truculent 1st u as in truck; formerly as in true. turquoise Ü tur-kwoyz or tur-kwahz. ululate yool-yoo-late. The alternative pronunciation ull-yoo-late seems now to be chiefly Amer. umbilical stress on 2nd syllable. unprecedented 2nd syllable like press. untoward the older pronunciation rhymed with lowered, but the pronunciation with stress on the 3rd syllable is now usual. Uranus

stress on 1st syllable.

urinal

stress on 1st syllable.

usual

in careful speech, avoid complete loss of u (yoo-zh'l).

uvula

yoo-vyoo-la.

uxorious 1st u as Uxbridge. vagary the original pronunciation was with stress on 2nd syllable, but this has been almost entirely superseded by that with stress on 1st syllable. vagin*, vagin*l stress on 2nd syllable, as in china. valance rhymes with balance. valence, -cy (chemistry): a as in ale. valet

those who employ them sound the t.

Valkyrie stress on 1st syllable. vase veld

a as in dance (Amer. rhymes with face or phase). sounds like felt.

venison the old pronunciation ven-z'n is now rare; ven-i-z'n or ven-i-s'n are usual. veterinary stress on 1st syllable, with reduction or elision of 2nd e and a (vet-rin-ry). ° Not vet-nar or (Amer.) vet-rin-ery. vice

(in the place of): rhymes with spicy.

vicegerent three syllables, 2nd e as in errant. victualler, victuals sound like vitt-ell-er, vittles. viola

(instrument): stress on 2nd syllable, i as in Fiona; (flower) stress on 1st syllable, i as in vie.

vitamin i as in hit (Amer. as in vital). viz.

(=videlicet): when reading aloud, it is customary to substitute namely; 'viz' is chiefly jocular.

voluntarily stress on 1st syllable. waistcoat the older pronunciation was wess-kot (with 2nd syllable like that of mascot); but the pronunciation as spelt has replaced it, except among older speakers. walnut, walrus ° do not drop the l. werewolf 1st syllable like weir.

whoop (cry of excitement, whoop it up): = woop; (cough, whooping cough) = hoop; both rhyme with loop. wrath

rhymes with cloth (Amer. with hath).

wroth

as for troth.

yoghurt yogg-urt (Amer. yoh-gurt). zoology in careful speech, best pronounced with 1st o as in zone; there are a number of other compounds of zoo- in technical use, in which this is the normal pronunciation. 3.0 Vocabulary =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=The perfect use of language is that in which every word carries the meaning that it is intended to, no less and no more. (C. Connolly, Enemies of Promise) THIS section is concerned with problems of meaning, construction, derivation, and diction, associated with individual words. The main aim is to recommend the meaning or construction most appropriate for serious writing or formal speaking, but some attention is paid to informal and American usage. aboriginal (noun) should be used in formal contexts as the singular of aborigines; Aboriginal, Aboriginals (with capitals) are preferable for singular and plural when referring to the aboriginal inhabitants of Australia. ° Aborigine is informal only. account, to reckon, consider, is not followed by as, e.g. Mere morality...was once accounted a shameful and cynical thing (G. B. Shaw). affect, to have an influence on, e.g. Hugh was immensely affected by the way Randall had put it (Iris Murdoch). ° Do not confuse with effect to accomplish, e.g. He picked at the German's lapel, hoping to effect a closer relationship by touch (Patrick White). ° There is a noun effect 'result, property', e.g. to good effect, personal effects, sound effects; but there is no noun affect except in the specialized language of Psychology. affinity between or with, not to or for, since mutual relationship or attraction is meant, e.g. Ann felt an affinity with them, as she too were an old dusty object (Iris Murdoch); Points of affinity between Stephen and Bloom (Anthony Burgess). afflict: see inflict aftermath can be used of any after-effects, e.g. The aftermath of the wedding seemed to mean different things to different people (The Times). It is pedantic to object to the sense 'unpleasant

consequences' on the ground of derivation. agenda (from a Latin plural) is usually a singular noun (with plural agendas), e.g. It's a short agenda, by the way (Edward Hyams). But it is occasionally found in its original use as a plural meaning 'things to be done' or 'items of business to be considered' (singular agend). aggravate (1) To make worse, e.g. The war...simply aggravates the permanent human situation (C. S. Lewis). (2) To annoy, exasperate. ° Sense (2) is regarded by some people as incorrect, but is common informally. The participial adjective aggravating is often used in sense (2) by good writers, e.g. He had pronounced and aggravating views on what the United States was doing for the world (Graham Greene). ain't

(= are not, is not, have not has not) is not used in Standard English except in representations of dialect speech, or humorously. Aren't (= are not) is also a recognized colloquialism for am not in the interrogative construction aren't I.

alibi,

a plea that when an alleged act took place one was elsewhere. ° The sense 'an excuse' is informal and to many people unacceptable, e.g. Low spirits make you seem complaining...I have an alibi because I'm going to have a baby (L. P. Hartley).

all of

(= the whole of, the entirety of, every one of) is usual before pronouns, e.g. And so say all of us, or emphatically, often paralleling none of etc., before nouns, e.g. Marshall Stone has all of the problems but none of the attributes of a star (Frederick Raphael). Otherwise all + noun is normal, e.g. All the King's men. ° The general use of all of before nouns is Amer. only.

all right. This phrase is popularly thought of as a unit, e.g. an all-right bloke, but its unitary nature has not yet been recognized in spelling by the standard language, probably because the expression remains largely an informal one. ° Alright, though widely seen in the popular press, remains non-standard, even where the standard spelling is somewhat cumbersome, as in: I just wanted to make sure it was all all right (Iris Murdoch). allude

means 'refer indirectly'; an allusion is 'an indirect reference', e.g. He would allude to her, and hear her discussed, but never mention her by name (E. M. Forster). ° The words are not, except very informally, mere synonyms for refer, reference.

alternative (adjective and noun). The use of alternative with reference to more than two options, though sometimes criticized, is acceptable, e.g. We have been driven to Proletarian Democracy by the failure of all the alternative systems (G. B. Shaw). ° Do not confuse with alternate happening or following in turns,

e.g. Just as every sense is afflicted with a fitting torment so is every spiritual faculty;...the sensitive faculty with alternate longing and rage (James Joyce). altogether. ° Beware of using this when all (adjective) together (adverb) is meant, e.g. The dogs were now running, all together.The reverse error, of using all together for the adverb altogether, should also be avoided; altogether is correct in There's too much going on altogether at the moment (Evelyn Waugh). amend, to alter to something that sounds better, make improvements in; to make better e.g. If you consider my expression inadequate I am willing to amend it (G. B. Shaw); I have amended my life, have I not? (James Joyce); noun amendment. ° Do not confuse with emend to remove errors from (something written), e.g. An instance of how the dictionary may be emended or censored (Frederic Raphael); noun emendation. An emendation will almost always be an amendment, but the converse is not true. analogous means 'similar in certain respects'. It is not a mere synonym for similar. anticipate (1) To be aware of (something) in advance and take suitable action, to deal with (a thing) or perform (an action) before someone else has had time to act so as to gain an advantage, to take action appropriate to (an event) before the due time, e.g. His power to anticipate every change of volume and tempo (C. Day Lewis); I shall anticipate any such opposition by tendering my resignation now (Angus Wilson); She had anticipated execution by suicide (Robert Graves); Some unknown writer in the second century...suddenly anticipated the whole technique of modern...narrative (C. S. Lewis). (2) To take action before (another person) has had the opportunity to do so, e.g. I'm sorry--do go on. I did not mean to anticipate you (John le Carr‚). (3) To expect (used only with an event as a direct object), e.g. Serious writers...anticipated that the detective story might supersede traditional fiction; Left-wing socialists really anticipated a Fascist dictatorship (A. J. P. Taylor). ° Sense (3) is well established in informal use, but is regarded as incorrect by many people. Use expect in formal contexts. In any case, anticipate cannot be followed, as expect can, by infinitive constructions (I expect to see him or him to come) or a personal object (I expect him today) and cannot mean 'expect as one's due' (I expect good behaviour from pupils). antithetical to means 'characterize by direct opposition to'; it is not a mere synonym for opposed to. approve (1) (Followed by direct object) authorize, e.g. I will give letters of introduction to persons approved by you (NEB). (2) (Followed by of) consider good, e.g. All the books approved of by young persons of cultivated taste (C. P. Snow). ° Approve should not be used in sense (2) with a direct object,

as (wrongly) in Laziness, rudeness, and untidiness are not approved in this establishment (correctly, approved of). apt,

aren't

followed by the to-infinitive, carries no implication that the state or action expressed by the infinitive is undesirable from the point of view of its grammatical subject (though it often is from that of the writer), e.g. In weather like this he is apt to bowl at the batsman's head (Robert Graves). It indicates that the subject of the sentence is habitually predisposed to doing what is expressed by the verb, e.g. Time was apt to become confusing (Muriel Spark). Compare liable, which, however, is not complementary to apt to, but overlaps with it; apt to, followed by a verb with undesirable overtones, = 'habitually or customarily liable to'. see ain't.

Argentine, Argentinian can be both noun (a native of Argentina) and adjective (= belonging to Argentina). ° Only the former is used in Argentine Republic, and it also has the advantage of brevity when used in other contexts. It rhymes with turpentine. artiste, a professional singer, dancer, or similar public performer: used of persons of either sex. as

(1) = that, which, or who (relative) is now non-standard except after same, such, e.g. Such comments as seem to be needed (George Orwell); but not I know somebody who knows this kid as went blind (Alan Sillitoe, representing regional speech). (2) = that (conjunction), introducing a noun clause, is now non-standard, e.g. in I don't know as you'll like it.

Asian

is to be preferred when used of persons to Asiatic, which is now widely considered derogatory; the formation of Asian is in any case more closely parallel to that of European, African, etc. Asiatic is acceptable in other contexts, e.g. Asiatic coastal regions; The Royal Asiatic Society; Asiatic cholera.

as from is used in formal dating to mean 'from' or 'after' and followed by an actual date, e.g. As from 10 p.m. on 15 October. As of, originally Amer., has the same meaning and use. ° As of now, yesterday, and the like, are informal and humorous only. aside from Amer., = apart from, except for. as if, as though (1) Followed by the past tense when the verb refers to an unreal possibility (i.e. when the statement introduced by as if, as though is untrue, or unlikely), e.g. Every critic writes as if he were infallible (Cyril Connolly); It's not as though he lived like a Milord (Evelyn Waugh). (2) Followed by the present tense when the statement is true, or might be true; this is especially common when the verbs look or sound precede, e.g. I suppose you get on pretty well with your parents. You look as though you do

(Kingsley Amis); He speaks as though even the rules which we freely invent are somehow suggested to us in virtue of their being right (Mary Warnock). attention. Someone called it to my attention (Alison Lurie) represents an illogical reversal of the idiom, not uncommon in speech; someone called (or drew) my attention to it or someone brought it to my attention would be better in formal contexts. author (verb) is a rarely required synonym for write; co-author, however, is acceptable as a verb. avenge: one avenges an injured person or oneself on (occasionally against) an offender, or a wrong on an offender; the noun is vengeance (on), and the idea is usually of justifiable retribution, as distinct from revenge, though the distinction is not absolute. aware

is normally a predicative adjective followed by an of-phrase or a that-clause, but can also be preceded by an adverb in the sense 'aware of, appreciative of (the subject indicated by the adverb)', a chiefly Amer. use, e.g. The most intellectually ambitious and the most technically aware (W. S. Graham). ° To use aware without any qualifying word at all is modish but meaningless, e.g. Aware, provincial, intelligent, tall Englishman (New Statesman).

bacteria is the plural of bacterium, not a singular noun. baluster, a short pillar with a curving outline, especially in a balustrade; banister, an upright supporting a stair handrail (usually in the plural). beg the question, to assume the truth of the thing which is to be proved, e.g. I scoffed at that pompous question-begging word 'Evolution' (H. G. Wells). ° It does not mean (1) to avoid giving a straight answer; or (2) to invite the obvious question (that...). behalf

on behalf of X (= in X's interest, as X's representative) should not be confused with on the part of x (= proceeding from or done by X); behalf cannot replace part in His death was largely due to panic on his part.

benign

(in Medicine) has malignant as its antonym.

beside (preposition) is used of spatial relationships, or in figurative adaptations of these, e.g. Beside oneself with joy; Quite beside the question; We all seemed children beside him (Evelyn Waugh); besides = in addition to, other than, e.g. Besides this I started my second year by joining the Ruskin School of Art (Evelyn Waugh). between. There are no grounds for objection to the use of between 'to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and collectively' (OED); among should not be

substituted in, e.g., Cordial relations between Britain, Greece, and Turkey. see also choose between. bi-

(prefix). Biannual = appearing (etc.) twice a year, half-yearly; biennial = recurring (etc.) every two years, two-yearly. Bimonthly, bi-weekly, and bi-yearly are ambiguous in sense, meaning either 'twice a month (etc.)' or 'every two months (etc.)'; they are best avoided. ° Use twice a month or semi-monthly, twice a week or semi-weekly, and twice a year in the first sense, and every two months, fortnightly or every two weeks, and every two years in the second sense.

billion, etc. (1) Traditional British usage has a billion = a million million (1,000,000,000,000 = 10 to the power of 12), a trillion = a million to the power of 3 (10 to the power of 18), and a quadrillion = a million to the power of 4 (10 to the power of 24); the logic is that the initial bi-, tri-, quadri-, etc. relate to the powers of a million. (2) The US usage makes each 'step' from million to quadrillion, and beyond, a power of 1,000; i.e. million = 1000 to the power of 2, billion = 1000 to the power of 3, trillion = l000 to the power of 4, quadrillion = l000 to the power of 5. (3) For the quantity 'thousand million' (l000 to the power of 3 = l0 to the power of 9), the older British term milliard is now rare. Many people who have frequent need to refer to the quantity, namely astronomers and economists, use the American billion for this. Most British national newspapers have officially adopted it too. ° In general contexts it is probably safer to use thousand million (X,000 m.). But where the sense is vague, e.g. A billion miles away, Billions of stars, the exact value is immaterial. Note that American trillion (10 to the power of 12) = traditional British billion. but

= 'except', followed by a pronoun: see but, case following.

candelabra is properly the plural of candelabrum and is best kept so in written English. ° Candelabra (singular), candelabras (plural) are frequent informally. censure, to criticize harshly and unfavourably, e.g. Laura censured his immoral marriage (E. M. Forster). ° Do not confuse with censor to suppress (the whole or parts of books, plays, etc.). centre about, (a)round, meaning (figuratively) 'to gather, revolve, or turn around' is criticized by many authorities, though used by good writers, e.g. A rather restless, cultureless life, centring round tinned food, Picture Post, the radio and the internal combustion engine (George Orwell). It can be avoided by using to be centred in or on, e.g. My universe was still centred in my mother's fragrant person (Richard Church).

century. Strictly, since the first century ran from the year 1 to the year 100, the first year of a given century should be that ending in the digits 0l, and the last year of the preceding century should be the year before, ending in two noughts. ° In popular usage, understandably, the reference of these terms has been moved back one year, so that one will expect the twenty-first century to run from 2000 to 2099. Beware of ambiguity in their written use. character. The use of this word after an adjective as a substitute for an abstract-noun termination (-ness, -ty, or the like), or for the word kind, devalues it and should be avoided, e.g. the uniqueness and antiquity of the fabric, not the unique and ancient character of the fabric. charisma (1) Properly, a theological word (plural charismata) designating any of the gifts of the Holy Spirit (see I Corinthians 12). (2) In general use (usually as a mass noun, with no plural), a term (drawn from the works of the German sociologist Max Weber) for the capacity to inspire followers with devotion and enthusiasm. charismatic (1) Designating a Christian movement that lays stress on the charismata. (2) Generally, 'having the capacity to inspire with devotion and enthusiasm', e.g. A forcefully charismatic hero compensating in physical presence for what he politically lacks (Terry Eagleton). choose between: this construction and choice between, are normally followed by and in written English; informally or is sometimes used, e.g. The poorest girl alive may not be able to choose between being Queen of England or Principal of Newnham; but she can choose between ragpicking and flowerselling (G. B. Shaw). chronic is used of a disease that is long-lasting, though its manifestations may be intermittent (the opposite is acute 'coming sharply to a crisis'); it is used in much the same way of other conditions, e.g. The chronic unemployment of the nineteen-twenties (A. J. P. Taylor); The commodities of which there is a chronic shortage (George Orwell). ° The sense 'objectionable, bad, severe' is very informal. comparable is followed by with in sense (1) of compare and by to in sense (2). The latter is much the more usual use, e.g. The little wooden crib-figures...were by no means comparable to the mass-produced figures (Muriel Spark). compare. In formal use, the following distinctions of sense are made: (1) 'Make a comparison of x with y', followed by with, e.g. You've got to compare method with method, and ideal with ideal (John le Carr‚). (2)'Say to be similar to, liken to', followed by to, e.g. To call a bishop a mitred fool and compare him to a mouse (G. B. Shaw). (3) Intransitively, = 'to be compared', followed by with, e.g.

None can compare with thee (NEB). ° Compare with is loosely used in sense (2); the senses overlap, e.g. How can you compare the Brigadier with my father? (John Osborne). Conversely, in the separate clause (as) compared with or to x, only sense (1) is possible, but to occurs as well as with, e.g. Tarzan...bewails his human ugliness as compared to the beauty of the apes (Tom Stoppard); Earth is tractable stuff compared with coal (George Orwell). comparison is usually followed by with, especially in by or in comparison with. It is followed by to when the sense is 'the action of likening (to)', e.g. The comparison of philosophy to a yelping she-dog (Jowett). complaisant, disposed to please others or comply with others' wishes; noun complaisance, e.g. The indulgent complaisance which Horace did not bother to disguise (Frederic Raphael). ° Do not confuse with complacent self-satisfied (noun complacency). compose can be used to mean 'constitute, make up' with the constituents as subject and the whole as object, e.g. The tribes which composed the German nation. It is more commonly used in the passive with the whole as subject and the constituents as object, e.g. His...face was composed of little layers of flesh like pallid fungus (Iris Murdoch). comprise. The proper constructions with comprise are the converse of those used with compose. (1) In the active, meaning 'consist of', with the whole as subject and the constituents as objects, e.g. The faculty comprises the following six departments. ° In sense (1), comprise differs from consist in not being followed by of. Unlike include, comprise indicates a comprehensive statement of constituents. (2) In the passive, meaning 'to be embraced or comprehended in', with the constituents as subject and the whole as object, e.g. Fifty American dollars comprised in a single note (Graham Greene). ° Comprise is often used as a synonym of compose, e.g. The twenty-odd children who now comprise the school (Miss Read). This is regarded as incorrect by many people. It is especially objectionable in the passive, since comprise is not followed by of; write The faculty is composed (not comprised) of six departments. condole, to express sympathy, is always followed by with, e.g. Many...had come...to condole with them on their brother's death (NEB). ° Do not confuse with console 'to comfort', followed by direct object, e.g. Console one another...with these words (NEB). conduce, to lead or contribute (to a result), is always followed by to; similarly conducive (adjective); e.g. The enterprise was popular, since it conduced to cut price jobs (J. I. M. Stewart). conform may be followed by to or with, e.g. The United Nations... conformed to Anglo-American plans (A. J. P. Taylor); Having

himself no particular opinions or tastes he relied upon whatever conformed with those of his companion (John le Carr‚). congeries, a collection of things massed together, is a singular noun, e.g. A congeries of halls and inns on the site (J. I. M. Stewart); it is unchanged in the plural. ° The form congery, formed in the misapprehension that congeries is plural only, is erroneous. connote, denote. Connote means 'to imply in addition to the primary meaning, to imply as a consequence or condition', e.g. Literature has needed to learn how to exploit all the connotations that lie latent in a word (Anthony Burgess). Denote means 'to be the sign of, indicate, signify', e.g. A proper name will convey no information beyond the bare fact that it denotes a person (Stephen Ullman). ° The two terms are kept rigidly distinct in Logic, but in popular usage connote is frequently used to mean 'convey to the mind', or 'mean in actual use' and hence verges on the sense of denote. Denote cannot be used in the senses of connote, e.g. in His silence does not connote hesitation (Iris Murdoch). consequent, following as a result, adverb consequently, e.g. Two engaged in a common pursuit do not consequently share personal identity (Muriel Spark). These are nearly always to be used rather than consequential 'following as an indirect result' and consequentially, which are rarer and more specialized. consist consist of = be composed of, made up of; consist in = have as its essential quality, e.g. All enjoyment consists in undetected sinning (G. B. Shaw). continual, always happening, very frequent and without cessation; continuous, connected, unbroken, uninterrupted; similarly the adverbs; e.g. He was continually sending Tiberius not very helpful military advice (Robert Graves); There was a continuous rattle from the one-armed bandits (Graham Greene). continuance, continuation. The former relates mainly to the intransitive senses of continue (to be still in existence), the latter to its transitive senses (to keep up, to resume), e.g. The great question of our continuance after death (J. S. Huxley); As if contemplating a continuation of her assault (William Trevor). cousin (1) The children of brothers or sisters are first cousins to each other. (2) The children of first cousins are second cousins to each other. (3) The child of one's first cousin, and the first cousin of one's parent, is one's first cousin once removed. (4) The grandchild of one's first cousin, or the first cousin of one's grandparent, is one's first cousin twice removed; and so on. (5) Cousin-german = first cousin. credible, able to be believed.

° Do not confuse with credulous, too ready to believe things, as e.g. in Even if one is credible (correctly credulous) enough to believe in their ability (Daily Telegraph). crescendo, used figuratively, means 'a progressive increase in force or effect'. Do not use it when climax is meant, e.g. in The storm reached a crescendo (correctly a climax) at midnight. criteria is the plural of criterion, not a singular noun. crucial, decisive, critical, e.g. His medical studies were not merely an episode in the development of his persona but crucial to it (Frederic Raphael). ° The weakened sense 'important' is informal only. data

(1) In scientific, philosophical, and general use usually considered as a number of items and treated as plural, e.g. Let us give the name of 'sense-data' to the things which are immediately known in sensation: such things as colours, sounds, (etc.) (Bertrand Russell); The optical data are incomplete (Nature); the singular is datum, e.g. Personality is not a datum from which we start (C. S. Lewis). (2) In computing and allied disciplines it is treated as a mass noun (i.e. a collective item), and used with words like this, that, and much, and with singular verbs; it is sometimes so treated in general use, e.g. Useful data has been obtained (Winston Churchill). ° Some people object to use (2). ° Data is not a singular countable noun and therefore cannotbe preceded by a, every, each, either, neither, and cannot be given a plural form datas.

decidedly, decisively. Decidedly, definitely; undoubtedly, e.g. The bungalow had a decidedly English appearance (Muriel Spark). Decisively (1) conclusively, so as to decide the question, e.g. The definition of 'capital' itself depends decisively on the level of technology employed (E. F. Schumacher); (2) resolutely, unhesitatingly, e.g. The young lady, whose taste has to be considered, decisively objected to him (G. B. Shaw). decimate, (originally) to kill or destroy one in every ten of; (now usually) to destroy or remove a large proportion of, e.g. All my parents' friends, my friends' brothers were getting killed. Our circle was decimated (Rosamond Lehmann). ° Decimate does not mean 'defeat utterly'. decline (verb: to refuse an invitation) has no derived noun; we have to make do with refusal if declining cannot be used. definitive, decisive, unconditional, final; (of an edition) authoritative; e.g. The Gold Cup flat handicap, the official and definitive result of which he had read in the Evening Telegraph (James Joyce). ° Do not use instead of definite (= having exact limits, distinct, precise); it cannot replace the latter in We finally

received a definite no. delusion, illusion. A general distinction can be drawn, though it is not absolute. Delusion would naturally occur in psychiatric contexts, and is used similarly outside them, to denote a false idea, impression, or belief held tenaciously, arising mainly from the internal workings of the mind; e.g. delusions of grandeur, and He's been sent here for delusions. His most serious delusion is that he's a murderer (Robert Graves). Illusion denotes a false impression derived either from the external world, e.g. optical illusion, and A partition making two tiny boxes, giving at least the illusion of privacy (Doris Lessing), or from faulty thinking, e.g. I still imagine I could live in Rome, but it may be an illusion (Iris Murdoch). It is in this second sense that illusion is almost equivalent to delusion; cf. I hope to strike some small blows for what I believe to be right, but I have no delusions that knock-outs are likely (Frederic Raphael). It should be remembered that delusion carries the sense of being deluded (by oneself or another), whereas no verb is implied in illusion; on the other hand, one can be said to be disillusioned, whereas delusion forms no such derivative. demean (1) Demean oneself = conduct oneself (usually with adverbial expression), e.g. Even on the scaffold he demeaned himself with dignity. (2) Demean (someone or something) = lower in status, especially with oneself, e.g. Their nobles would not demean themselves to serve their governor (NEB). denote: see connote. depend, to be contingent on (a condition or cause), is followed by on or upon. ° The use of it depends followed, without on or upon, by an interrogative clause, is informal only, e.g. It depends what you have.. in mind in forming a library of gramophone records whether you think it worth acquiring (The Times). depreciate, deprecate. Depreciate (1) to make or become lower in value; (2) to belittle, disparage, e.g. To defend our record we seem forced to depreciate the Africans (Listener); To become a little more forthcoming and less self- depreciating (Richard Adams). Deprecate (1) (with a plan, proceeding, purpose, etc. as the object) to express a wish against or disapproval of, e.g. I deprecate this extreme course, because it is good neither for my pocket nor for their own souls (G. B. Shaw); Polly.. patted her father's head in deprecation of such forcible metaphor (Anthony Powell). (2) (with a person as the object) to express disapproval of, to reprove; to disparage, e.g. Anyone who has reprinted his reviews is in no position to deprecate our reprinter (Christopher Ricks). ° Sense (2) of deprecate tends to take on the sense of depreciate (2), especially in conjunction with self. This use is frequently found in good writers, e.g. A humorous self-deprecation about one's own advancing senility (Aldous

Huxley); The old, self-deprecating expression (Susan Hill). It is, however, widely regarded as incorrect. derisive = scoffing; derisory = (1) scoffing, (2) so small or unimportant as to be ridiculous (now the more usual sense), e.g. A part...once looked upon as discreditable and derisory (Anthony Powell). dialect (form of speech) forms dialectal as its adjective; dialectic (form of reasoning) can be adjective as well as noun, or can have dialectical as its adjective. dice

is the normal singular as well as the plural (one dice, two dice); the old singular, die, is found only in the die is cast, straight (or true) as a die, and in mathematical discussions, e.g. Rolling a die will generate a stream of random numbers.

dichotomy in non-technical use means 'differentiation into contrasting categories' and is frequently followed by between, e.g. An absolute dichotomy between science and reason on the one hand and faith and poetry on the other. ° It does not mean dilemma or ambivalence. die

(noun): see dice.

different can be followed by from to or than. (1) Different from is the most usual expression in both written and spoken English; it is the most favoured by good writers, and is acceptable in all contexts, e.g. It is also an 'important' book, in a sense different from the sense in which that word is generally used (George Orwell). (2) Different to is common informally. It sometimes sounds more natural than different from, and should then be used; e.g. when yoked with similar and followed by a phrase introduced by to: His looks are neither especially similar nor markedly different to those of his twin brother. (3) Different than is an established idiom in American English, but is not uncommon in British use, e.g. Both came from a different world than the housing estate outside London (Doris Lessing). Both different to and different than are especially valuable as a means of avoiding the repetition and the relative construction required after different from in sentences like I was a very different man in 1935 from what I was in 1916 (Joyce Cary). This could be recast as I was a very different man in 1935 than I was in 1916 or than in 1916. Compare The American theatre, which is suffering from a different malaise than ours, which is greatly preferable to suffering from a different malaise from that which ours is suffering from. This construction is especially common when different is part of an adverbial clause (e.g. in a different way) or when the adverb differently is used, and has been employed by good writers since the seventeenth century, e.g. Things were constructed very differently now than in former times (Trollope); Sebastian was a drunkard in quite a different sense to myself (Evelyn Waugh); Puts one in a different position to your own father (John Osborne). differential,

a technical term Mathematics, an abbreviation for differential gear, or a term for a maintained difference in wage between groups of workers. ° It is not a synonym for difference. digraph = a group of two letter standing for a single sound, e.g. ea in head, gh in cough; ligature = a typographical symbol consisting of two letters joined together, e.g. fi, fl. The term diphthong is best restricted to the sense for which there is no synonym, namely 'a union of two vowels pronounced in one syllable', which is something primarily spoken and heard, not written; i in find, ei in rein, and eau in bureau all represent diphthongs. One cause of confusion is that Latin had two diphthongs (ae and oe) often printed as ligatures ‘ and oe in English words derived from Latin these are now digraphs ‘ and oe (sometimes modified into e: see "ae and oe" in topic 1.4 representing single vowel sounds. dilemma (1) A choice between two (or sometimes more than two) undesirable or awkward alternatives, e.g. The unpleasant dilemma of being obliged either to kill the father or give up the daughter. (2) More loosely, a perplexing situation in which a choice has to be made, e.g. The dilemma of the 1960s about whether nice girls should sleep with men (Alan Watkins). ° It is not merely a synonym for problem. diphthong: see digraph. direct

is used as an adverb in two of the main senses of the adjective: (1) straight, e.g. Another door led direct to the house (Evelyn Waugh); (2) without intermediaries, e.g. I appeal now, over your head, direct to the august oracle (G. B. Shaw).

directly is used

The Oxford Guide To English Usage - SILO.PUB (2024)

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